Innovation in Education

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Unit I – THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Educational Technology is made up of two words, ‘education’ and ‘technology’.

The word ‘education’ has been derived from the Latin words ‘educare’, ‘educere’, ‘educo’ which means ‘to train’, ‘to instruct’, ‘to put’, ‘to draw out’ or ‘lead forth’. Thus education is an act or process of acquiring and imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes. 

The word ‘technology’ was derived from the Greek words ‘technic’ means art or skill and ‘logia’ means ‘science or study’. Thus technology means the science of study of an art or skill.   

According to the International Dictionary on Education, technology is the application of scientific knowledge to a practical purpose (problem).

MEANING AND DEFINITIONS

            Educational Technology is a system in education in which machines, materials, media, means and methods (5M’s) are interrelated and work together for the fulfillment of specific educational objectives. A judicious use of these together with new functions and roles of educational personnel can bring about more efficient and effective teaching learning.

Educational Technology is an applied or practical study which aims at maximizing educational effects by controlling relevant factors such as educational purposes, educational content, teaching materials, educational environment, conduct of students, behaviour of instructors and interrelations between students and instructors.

 The NCERT defines Educational Technology as the means of development, application and evaluation of three different things; i) techniques, ii) system and iii) aids to improve the process of human learning.

 S. S. Kulkarni (1968): Educational Technology may be defined as the application of the laws as well as recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of education.

G. O. M. Leith (1967): Educational Technology is the systematic application of scientific knowledge about teaching-learning and conditions of learning to improve the efficiency of teaching and training.

Shiv K. Mitra (1968):  Educational Technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and methods by which educational goals could be realized.

I. K. Davies (1971): Educational Technology is concerned with the problems of education and training context and it is characterized by the disciplined and systematic approach to the organization of resources for learning.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The man is a biological system. When he uses the external physical objects (television, radio, films, etc.,), these objects are said to be the extended form of man. These objects are also known as communication media. The teaching can be subjected to the scientific analysis by educational technology with the use of communication media. Coordination can be established between teaching and learning. Hence, educational technology is frequently used in the areas of teaching and learning. The need and importance of educational technology in teaching and learning can be mentioned as follows:

Ø  The most important contribution of educational technology in the world of education is providing scientific base to education.

Ø  The latest innovations in educational technology are very useful in solving the problem related to the individual differences during teaching and learning.

Ø  The use of devices like radio, television, tape-recorder etc., could be possible only due to educational technology. The pupils living in the far-off places are able to enjoy their benefits, as a result of educational technology.

Ø  The solution of problems of educational management can seek help from the methods as suggested by educational technology, e.g. system analysis.

Ø  Number of openings for conducting experiments related to problems of classroom teaching and training could be possible.

Ø  Educational technology helps in understanding the structure of education and its nature.

Ø  Educational technology plays appreciable role in making the teaching and learning more purposeful and effective.

Ø  Educational technology makes possible the maximum use of resources available in an institution.

Ø  An increase in teacher’s efficiency can be possible only due to educational technology.

Ø  Educational technology helpful in bringing the expected behavioral changes in the pupils.

Ø  In educational technology, all levels are used, i.e. memory level, understanding level and reflective level. While using these levels, the pupils move towards originality and become creative.

Ø  Educational technology has proved much useful in learning outcome.

Ø  Owing to population explosion, more and more educational provisions can be made with the help of educational technology, for example programmed learning, corresponding education.

Ø  Educational technology is capable of contributing in the research work in the field of education.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The scope or areas of educational technology is summarized as below;

Ø Analysis of the Process of Teaching and Learning: Educational technology tries to discuss the concept of teaching, process of teaching, variable of teaching, phases and levels of teaching, theories of teaching, principles of teaching, concept of learning, theories of learning, relationship between teaching and learning, integration of theories and principles of teaching and learning for attaining optimum educational purposes.

Ø Determination of Educational Goals or Objectives: Educational technology discuss the topics such as identification of educational needs and aspirations of the community, suggesting broad educational objectives, analyzing the broad objectives in terms of the specific classroom objectives of teaching and learning, specifications of these objectives in behavioural terms.

Ø Development of the Curriculum: This aspect of educational technology is concerned with the designing of suitable curriculum for the achievement of the stipulated objectives. It may describe the ways and means for the selection of suitable learning experiences or contents, organization of these contents and analyze the suitability of the curriculum in relation to objectives, means, materials and evaluation.

Ø Development of Teaching-Learning Material: This area of educational technology is concerned with the production and development of the suitable teaching-learning material in view of the objectives, curriculum and available resources. Here it tries to discuss the essential techniques of developing software and instructional material like programmed learning material, computer assisted learning material, mass media instructional material, personalized system of instruction and preparation of lesson plans.

Ø Teacher Preparation or Teacher Training: Teacher is a key figure in any process of teaching and learning. Educational technology, therefore, takes care of the proper preparation of teachers for exercising their complex responsibilities. For this purpose, educational technology includes topics like models of teaching, micro-teaching, stimulated teaching, term-teaching, teacher effectiveness, modification of teacher behaviour, classroom interaction and interaction analysis.

Ø Development and Selection of the Teaching-Learning Strategies: This aspects deal with the central problem of teaching-learning act. Here educational technology tries to describe the ways and means of discovering, selecting and developing suitable strategies of teaching in terms of the optimum learning and available teaching-learning resources, availability of different types of teaching methods, devices and models of teaching along with their use for the optimum results.

Ø Development, Selection and Effective Utilization of the Appropriate Audio-Visual Aids and Mass Media: Teaching- learning is greatly influenced and benefited by the use of appropriate audio-visual aids. Educational technology covers the aspects of various types of audio-visual aids, their selection to a particular teaching-learning situation, their production and development in view of the available resources, proper handling and maintenance, their storage and retrieval and consideration about their cost-effectiveness and effective utilization in education on the individual and collective basis.

Ø To Work for the Effective Utilization of the Subsystem of Education: Educational technology considers education as a system operating in a systematic and scientific way, for the achievement of educational objectives. So it includes the study of different sub systems, their operations and processes in terms of input and output, the needed development in the working of the subsystem in view in the economy, output and functionality of the system and the organization and management of the system in an effective way by specifying the respective roles of the man, machine and media in relation to the purposes of teaching and learning.

Ø To Provide Essential Feedback and Control through Evaluation: Educational technology is essentially concerned with the task of exercising appropriate control over the process of teaching and learning by planning and devising suitable tools and devices for the continuation evaluation of the process and product of the teaching learning activities. Such evaluation provides an appropriate feedback to the learners as well as the teachers for brining necessary improvement at the preparatory and implementation stages of their specific acts. For this purpose, educational technology discusses the ways and means of suitable evaluation techniques and their planning, development, selection and appropriate use in relation to the objectives of teaching-learning system.

Thus, educational technology is concerned with all the variables, phases, levels and aspects of the teaching-learning process. In brief, it works for the overall planning and organization of thy system or sub-systems of education. It helps all those who are connected directly or indirectly to the processes and products of education. It teaches the teachers the art of teaching, the learner the science of learning, the educational planners, the structure of planning and the administrators or managers the skill of managing or administering the task of teaching and learning. It works for the individualization of instructions as well as for improving the group-dynamics of the classroom. It reaches to the individuals, groups and the masses privileged or unprivileged through its media and means. 

TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY OF EDUCATION

            The movement towards educational technology began to develop after World War II. Educational technology is often considered to be the intermix of two aspects:  Technology in Education and Technology of Education and is diagrammatically represented as follows;  

Technology of Education (Software)

Technology in Education (Hardware)

 

Technology in Education

The term technology in education refers to the use or application of technological advancement such as various equipment, material and machines for educational purposes. It includes audio-visual equipment, hardware and electronic devises like projectors, films, radio, television, tape recorder, teaching machines, tele-text and computer aided instructions for individualized and group learning.

            

Thus, technology in education can provide its services for the following purposes:

Ø It provides the needed appliances, equipment and audio-visual material and mass media for the different purposes and functions of education.

Ø Enables the teachers to handle and make optimum use of equipment.

Ø To develop positive attitude towards these equipment.

Ø It helps the individualized and group learning for achieving the goals of formal or non-formal education.

Technology of Education

The term technology of education signifies a system or technological approach to the problems of education. It refers to the application of behavioural sciences like psychology of educational theories and practical teaching-learning problems, instruction and motivation etc. The field technology of education focus on the development of teaching and learning procedures borrowed from behavioural psychology. Emphasizing on this point of view T. K. Robinson (1976) writes:

Behavioural Science

            The strongest protagonists for educational technology are not satisfied with a role limited to technology in education and the provision of audio-visual aids. They crucially involved in the design and evaluation of systems of learning involving and understanding of the psychology of learning and of communication and information theory to be used to establish a rational for good teaching practice.  Then it uses a variety of media and modes and which enables a teacher to deploy his skills more effectively and apply them more widely. This is technology of education.

Electronics & Physical Sciences

Education

 

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY OF EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

S. No.	Areas	Technology of Education	Technology in Education
1.	Basis	It is based on child psychology (age, ability and mental level).	It is based on the principles of physical sciences or engineering sciences.
2.	Approach	This approach is identified as software approach.	This approach is identified as hardware approach.
3.	Origin	Its origin lies in the application of behavioural sciences to the problems.	Its origin lies in the application of physical sciences or engineering to education.
4.	Examples	Text books, work books, newspaper etc.	TV, Radio, Slide Projector, Computer, OHP etc.
5.	Relation	It is related to learning aids.	It is related to teaching aids.
6.	Requirement	The use of this approach does not require skilled personnel as in hardware technology.	Skilled personnel in hardware technology are needed.
7.	Flexibility	This approach is very flexible.	This approach is relatively rigid.
8.	Type	It is called constructive educational technology.	It is called relative technology.
9.	Contribution to Educational System	This approach is very helpful in understanding the need of the learners and educating them accordingly.	It is useful in mass education programmes.
10.	Cost	It is less costly.	It is expensive.

FORMS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational technology, in a broader sense stands for the application of the principles and techniques of science and technology as well as psychology and pedagogy in the activities of teaching and learning. As a result, it has been capable of providing necessary ways and means, theoretical as well as practical, for improving the processes and products of teaching-learning related to both formal and informal education. With such a broad concept, educational technology has formed its roots and wings in certain distinct aspects and forms in various courses and programmes related to the study and application of educational technology. In general, they can be listed as follows:

1.      Teaching Technology

2.      Instructional Technology

3.      Behavioural Technology

4.      Instructional Design Technology

Let us discuss these forms of educational technology in detail.

TEACHING TECHNOLOGY

Teaching technology, as a form of educational technology is concerned with the task of systematization of the process of teaching. Here, teaching cannot merely be treated as a sum total of certain teaching skills. A teacher has to play the role of a technician by learning the art and science of teaching. In this sense, teaching is considered as a technology that a teacher should try to know and practice well if he wishes to be successful in his teaching job

If a teacher can teach well with the least efforts resulting into maximum productivity, then he can be thought of utilizing teaching as a technology. The essence of the application of technology lies in getting more and better output with the least input in terms of time and labour. If a teacher knows the art and technique or if he is in a position to make use of the teaching technology in realizing the teaching objectives, he can get more success in his task with the least of efforts. The chief exponents of Teaching Technology are I.K. Davies, N.L. Gagne, Herbert, Hunt, Burner and Robert Glaser.

Fundamental Principles and Characteristics of Teaching Technology

            Teaching technology, as suggested by E. G. Vedanayagam (1988), can be distinguished because of certain characteristics and fundamental principles as follows:

Ø  Teaching is a scientific process and its major components are content, communication and feedback.

Ø  There is a close relationship between teaching and learning.

Ø  It is possible to modify, improve and develop the teaching-learning activities.

Ø  The terminal behaviour of the leaner can be established by appropriate teaching environment.

Ø  Teaching skills can be developed and strengthened by means of feedback devices with or without sophisticated techniques.

Ø  Pre-determined learning objectives can be achieved by designing suitable teaching activities.

Ø  Use of achievement motivation technique enhances the output of the teacher and the learner.

Contents of Teaching Technology

            A teacher has to imbibe the art and techniques of technology. Davies (1971), in his work Management of Learning, has presented the contents of teaching technology in the shape of four steps. These steps systematically prescribe the contents of teaching technology to be learnt by a teacher for becoming a teaching technician and are as follows;

Planning of Teaching: Teaching technology helps a teacher to plan the details of his teaching journey to be travelled along with his students. For this purpose, a teacher must formulate the teaching-learning objectives for the ongoing teaching-learning process and then carefully plan for the realization of these set of objectives by taking care of the (i) the entry behaviour of the learners (ii) selection of appropriate learning experiences, (iii) selection of appropriate teaching methods, strategies and aid materials and (iv) creating a conducive and helpful environment for proper teaching-learning.

Organization of Teaching: In its second step, teaching technology supplies the necessary knowledge and skills to the concerned teacher for organizing all the available teaching-learning resources, men and materials, for the realization of the set objectives in the most effective and economical way. Specifically, it may talk about the ways and means of seeking cooperation of the administrative personnel, parents and community; developing teacher’s own competencies for better communication including use of proper teaching methods, aids and strategies.

Leading of Teaching: Teaching technology in this step provide necessary knowledge and skills for a teacher to motivate, encourage and guide and thus lead his students on the path of learning for the realization of the teaching-learning objectives.

Controlling of Teaching: Teaching technology in this step help a teacher to acquire necessary knowledge and skill for the measurement and assessment of the teaching-learning outcomes in view of the set teaching-learning objectives.

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

            As the name suggests, this kind of educational technology is meant for helping the instructor and the learner in the process of imparting instruction for the realization of the instructional objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation, which is mostly cognitive in nature. The conative as well as affective domains of the learner’s behaviour are almost neglected in the services provided by instructional technology. In simple words, it is a type of technology meant for brining improvement in the instructional process. Here the term instruction stands for a certain type of command meant for getting some specific information, knowledge and understating about a thing, system or process. The type of technology which may help the learner and the instructor in this task may be termed as instructional technology. The chief exponents of instructional technology are B.F Skinner, Bruner, Glaser, Gilbert and Mager.

Instructional technology may be defined as a subsystem of educational technology which helps the instructor or the learner himself as a part of his self-learning or auto instruction by determining the media, methods and, materials for the realization of the stipulated instructional objectives in a given teaching-learning situation.        

            Let us visualize how does instructional technology helps the instructor and the learner in the task of instruction and learning in a particular teaching-learning situation.

Setting of Instructional Objectives

            Instructional objectives are the core and heart of any instructional process. Whatever piece of instruction is planned, it needs setting of instructional objectives in the beginning. What type of behavioural changes are expected after going through that piece of instruction to the learner is thus to be decided and set before proceeding. The following factors are also considered while framing the instructional objectives,

Ø  The age and grade level of the learner

Ø  The physical, emotional, social and mental potential of the leaner

Ø  The previous experiences of the learner related to the subject and topic

Ø  The men, material resources available for imparting instruction

Ø  Taxonomy of instructional objectives (Bloom, Simpson, Harrow, Robert Mager’s Approach, Robert Miller’s Approach or RCEM Approach)

Taking Decision about the Instructional Material

            In the view of the instructional objectives, what type of learning experiences should be provided to the learner needs to be decided at this stage. For this purpose we have to select the teaching-learning experiences and then organize and integrate them properly for utilizing in the course of instruction. This instructional material is then provided by following the principles of simple to complex, known to unknown, specific to general, theory to practice. For auto instruction, like programmed learning, CAI, teaching machines, the instructional material is well available in the form of well arranged, sequenced from suiting the abilities, needs and requirements of the learners for learning at their own pace.

Taking decision about the Media and Methods

            For imparting instruction, one has to take proper decision about the selection of particular media and method or a combination of media and methods depending upon the nature of instruction and resources and environment available in a particular teaching-learning situation.

It contains the topic like the following in its prescribed syllabus of course:

Ø  Instructional strategies like lecture strategy, demonstration strategy, etc.

Ø  Special instructional procedures for carrying out auto-instructional or self-learning like programmed instruction, instruction carried out with the help of teaching machines, etc.

Ø  Cooperative or group instructional strategies like working on project, living and learning in the community, etc.

Ø  Knowledge and application of various types of audio-visual aids and instructional material such as radio, television, tape recorder, projector, charts, etc.

Taking Decision about the Proper Instructional Environment

Particular type of environment is essential for carrying out particular type of instruction, and at then helps the teacher as well as learner for organization of that type of instructional environment.

Helping in the Task of Evaluation

Evaluation is the real key and controlling agency of any type of instructional activity carried out by the teacher or any auto-instruction. How far a teacher or learner has been successful in realizing the instructional objectives can be made known only through a well-planned strategy of evaluation.

           

BEHAVIOURAL TECHNOLOGY

        “Any manifestation of life is activity”, says Woodworth and behaviour is a collective name of such activities. The term human behaviour includes all types of conative, cognitive and affective activities. Therefore, behavioural technology, as one of the form of educational technology is utilized to study and bring modification in the behaviour. The famous psychologist B. F. Skinner popularized the term behavioural technology while making use of his theory of operant conditioning for bringing the desired modifications in the behaviour of living organisms. The chief exponents of behavioural technology are Flanders, B.F. Skinner, Anderson, and Amidon.

A behavioral technologist tries to assess and modify the behaviour in terms of both antecedents (i.e. events that precede behaviour) and consequences (i.e. events that follow behaviour). These antecedent events may be environmental events or cognitive events (i.e. thoughts, attitudes or perceptions) that are considered to influence behaviour.

Use and Application of Behavioural Technology

The uses and application of behavioural technology may be summarized as follows:

Ø  Analysis of Behaviour: Behaviour technology will help in analyzing the behaviour of individuals in a proper way. An analyst with its help may state the behaviour in specific, observable behavioural terms, e. g.: he is daydreaming or wasting his time in gossiping etc. Behaviorists have developed proper tools for the analysis of such behaviour. E.g.: Flanders Interaction Analysis System. With such an analysis of the observed behaviour, the existing behaviour patterns or behavioral problems of the concerned individuals may be easily determined.

Ø  Setting the Target Behaviour for Behaviour Modification: Once the existing behaviour is known and analyzed into specific behavioural terms, the help of behaviour technology may be taken for setting as well as stating the target behaviour in specific behavioural terms. For example, if a student behaves aggressively on the playground (showing undesired behaviours like pushing, grabbing, kicking and threatening to hurt other children), the desired modified target behaviour, according to a behavioural technologist, may be defined as “participating non-aggressively”. As a result of such naming, identifying and fixing of desired modified target behaviour in specific term, the actual task of behaviour modification, then may became quite scientific, purposeful and goal-oriented.

Ø  Providing Suitable Ways and Means for Behaviour Modification: In its third step, behaviour technology supplies the necessary ways and means, tools and techniques for the desired behavioural modification of the concerned individuals. Here it can help:

v  The learners to acquire the desired learning experiences in the terms of knowledge, understanding, skills, application, attitudes and values.

v  The teachers by suggesting ways and means for bringing changes in the learning and acquisition behaviour of their students.

v  The parents, teachers, educational administrators, guidance personnel and social workers, by suggesting suitable technology for the prevention and treatment of behavioural problems.

v  The parents and teachers to work with their children and students for the optimum growth and development of the desirable personality traits and behavioural acts.

v  The teachers in learning proper teacher behaviour and acquiring needed teaching skills through special behavioural technology techniques like interaction analysis, micro-teaching, simulated teaching, term teaching, action research, etc.

v  The teachers have to manage properly the classroom behaviour and interaction of their students aimed at creating proper conductive environment for effective teaching learning.

In this way, behavioural technology may help the interested individuals to know the nature of the existing behaviour, the nature of the target behaviour and the way and means to meeting the gaps between the existing and target behaviours.

For inducing the desired behaviour or for bringing the needed modification in the existing behaviour, behaviour technology, as said earlier, makes use of its own technology including appropriate learning principles based on operant conditioning and social learning.

SYSTEMS APPROACH

Meaning of the term ‘System’

            The term ‘system’ signifies the meaning of wholeness or interrelationships between parts or elements and self-regulation. Here it is explained more clearly in the light of some well-known definitions.  

            R. L. Ackoff (1971): A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent elements.

             A. K. Jalaluddin (1981): A system may be defined as a dynamic, complex, integrated whole consisting of a self-regulating pattern of interrelated and interdependent elements organized to achieve the predetermined and specified objectives.

Parameters of a System

Any system may be described in terms of four basic parameters: 

1.      Input - what is put in to a system

2.      Process - what goes on in a system

3.      Output - product of a system and

4.      Environmental context - refers to all those conditions, factors and constraints related with the physical and social environment in which the system operates.

These basic parameters of a system can be diagrammatically represented as follows:

Environment Environment

Input

Process

Output

 

Systems Approach

Systems approach is a technique based on the systems concept. In this approach, a problem is taken into account in its totality and attempts are made to solve it in the context of the i) predetermined objectives and ii) functioning of its interrelated parts and the whole system under given environmental constraint.

Basically system approach tries to have a control over inputs, process, outputs and the environmental constrains. A system is maintained if it meets the requirements of the objectives, and it does not need modification. But if there arises a need for adjustment either in the contents of the inputs or in the process or both then we may change or modify or develop in the existing norms under which the whole system operates. In this way, various modes of adjustment in the components and functioning of the system are tried and the most feasible one is retained for getting the best results.

Steps involved in Systems Approach

            There are three major steps involved in a systems approach:

Ø  System analysis

Ø  System design and development

Ø  System operation and evaluation.

System Analysis

System analysis is concerned with the task of analyzing a system in the form of identifying its elements, their organization, their function or performance individually or as a whole in order to determine the need to make adjustment to ensure the achievement of system namely inputs, process, outputs, and the environmental constrains. It helps the designer of the system identify the constraints that interfere in the attainment of system objectives.

System Design and Development

The system design and development is related with the task of synthesizing. Here, attempts are made to design and develop the system on the basis of the finding of the former.

The following are the main activities undertaken in this step:

·         Determination of the objectives of the system

·         Selection of appropriate devices, methods, strategies and approaches

·         Formulating a scheme of comprehensive programmes for the working of the system in relation to objectives.

System Operation and Evaluation

System operation and evaluation is concerned with the actual operation of a system and its evaluation in terms of the objectives for providing necessary feedback to bring desirable improvement and modification in the structure and functioning of the system. If the output of a system meets the expectations or requirements of the objectives, the system can be allowed to carry on. The need for bringing necessary alternation or improvement in the system is felt, then it can be done in some of the following ways:

·         Working with the elements or inputs of the system

·         Working with the functions of elements or inputs

·         Controlling the process and interaction among the elements of the system

·         Manipulating the environmental constrains of the system

            In this way, the system may be restructured, reorganized and its functioning may be re-planned and re-operated in view of achieving better results. These processes are continued till getting best results in terms of the objectives with greater economy, precision and accuracy.

Education system

Education system is a man-made system. It may also be taken as a subsystem of the society in itself.

Pupils Administration Teachers Material for Formal or Informal Education

Attainment of Educational Objectives

Formal or Informal Education Process

Input

Output

Environment

Environment

Environment

Environment

 

The school system (a system of formal education) may be treated as a subsystem of the education system or a system complete in itself. It may have instructional (related with the cognitive development of pupils) and co-instructional system as its subsystem. However both the instructional and co-instructional system may exist and function quite independently as a complete system in themselves.

System Approach to Education

System approach refers to a well-thought technique for designing, controlling and using a system for realizing the system objectives in the best possible ways. Its application in the field of education will surely make the system of education self-maintaining with its basic parameters operating scientifically on the principle of feedback and equilibrium. As a result, system approach to education is likely to solve various educational problem related with the organization and management of the process and products of education. The purpose served by systems approach in education may be summarized now:

ü  It can effectively improve the instructional system.

ü  It can bring efficiency in the school administration and management.

ü  It may help in seeking the maximum effective utilization of the men and material resources.

ü  A systematic educational planning in terms of long-range goals and specific short-range objective can be done by it.

ü  It may help in improving the examination and evaluation system.

ü  Improvement in the organization of co-curricular activities and other educational aspects of brining conative and affective development of the pupils can be brought.

ü  It may help in maintaining, controlling and improving the guidance services of the schools.

ü  It may help in improving the training and development programmes, E.g. the training of teachers (pre-service and in-service) may be effectively improved.

ü  It may prove an invaluable means for designing, controlling and improving the systems of non/informal and adult education.

ü  Over and above, it may render valuable services in improving the quality of education in all its aspects and dimension.

Steps involved in System Approach to Education

Generally, in adopting systems approach for the solution of the problems in education, the following steps are employed:

·         Identification of the problem

·         Specification of objectives

·         Analysis of the task involved in achieving the objectives

·         Systems analysis - analysis of the input and constraints of the system in the context of the objectives

·         System design and development - by generating alternative strategies (change in input process or constraints)

·         Identification of preferred solution in a given context

·         Operation and implementation of preferred solution

·         Evaluation of the effectiveness of the performance in terms of specified objectives

·         Providing feedback in the light of the evaluation for brining necessary improvement and modification.

The instructional work and activities being inside a teaching-learning situation may be seen to work as a subsystem of the education system. However in a particular teaching-learning situation, it may be found to work as a self-regulatory and independently functioning system along with its different constitutes or parameters.

CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

In view of the discussion carried out, the following conclusions can be drawn about the concept of educational technology:

Ø The earliest concept of educational technology was linked with the use of audio visual aids like charts, models, maps specimen and concrete material. In this sense, the term educational technology was used as a synonym to audio visual aids meant for direct teaching and learning.

Ø With the advent of physical science and consequently the electronic evolution there came and era of sophisticated hardware and software like projectors, tape recorders, radio and television. As a result educational technology was taken in terms of these sophisticated instruments and equipment’s used for presenting instructional material.

Ø Then came the age of mass media.it led to a massive communication revolution for instructional purposes. Utilization of radio, television, tele-text and Computer Assisted instruction for individualized learning thus brought more sophistication in the use of appliances and instruments for formal and informal education.

Ø So educational technology cannot be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids and technology in education emphasizes the concept of service, i.e., the use of different equipment, gadgets and mass media.

Ø Educational technology mean technology of education presenting itself as a system for bringing improvement in the total process of teaching learning by carefully analyzing its problems and reorganizing all available resources in an economic way for obtaining the optimum results.

Ø Educational technology cannot be viewed in terms of its parts or processes. Instructional technology, teaching technology, behaviour technology, programmed learning, micro-teaching, system analysis, management of teaching learning, teacher or pupil behavior etc., are all its constituents and resources. All these branches, innovations, approaches and strategies should be integrated as a whole according to the needs and requirements of the system represented by educational technology at a particular time in a given situation for accomplishing its useful objectives.

Unit II: Instructional Media

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

Media

Media is the plural form of medium, which describes any channel of communication. This can include anything from printed paper to digital data, and encompasses art, news, educational content and numerous other forms of information. Digital media, which makes up an increasingly vast portion of modern communications, is comprised of intricately encoded signals that are transmitted over various forms of physical and virtual media, such as fiber optic cable and computer networks.

Instructional Media

            Media are used to help the learner achieve the learning objectives more effectively and efficiently. Common instructional media are generally called as 'teaching-learning aids' such as blackboard (chalkboard), charts, models, video film, radio, etc. Some of these media are used to create readiness in the learners for learning experiences. They provide clarity, precision and accuracy in processing information. They create visual images which help retention of the learnt concepts. Some of them also provide stimulation to more senses than one (e.g. video film or instructional television). Some media provide opportunity to the learner to learn individually at his own pace (e.g. CAI) or in a small group (models, assignments, newspaper cuttings for discussion, etc.) or in a large (e.g. 35 mm film or slides).

Instructional media can be used in all phases viz. development, organisation and summarising phases of classroom instruction. They can be used with learners of any age group.

NEEDS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

·         To form a clear idea of something

·         To stress the essential and leave the non-essential in the background

·         To give access to something which may be inaccessible

·         To clarify abstract information which may be difficult to communicate verbally

·         To condense large quantities of information

·         To promote mental activity of students

·         To give feedback to the teacher about student

·         To encourage emotional response interest

·         To support to work of the teacher

IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

Compels Attention: The right use of audio-visual aids complex attention and hence wins the interest of the pupils. It also helps to motivate students.

Firsthand Experience: It provides firsthand experience when teacher demonstrates a lesson, students perform experiments themselves and prepare charts, models, etc.

Clearness of Perception: Audio-visual aids reduce the verbalism or useless phrases and hence leads towards clearness of perception.

Learning Experience is Made Concrete: It makes the learning experiences more concrete and teacher can make the concepts clear.

Friendly Attitude of Teacher: The teacher becomes friend of students while using audio-visual aids. When teacher demonstrates, shows models, or takes the students for out-door activities he becomes guide and friend of students.

Time Saving:  It saves time and learning becomes more effective.

Brings Vital Reality: It brings vital, fresh and intense reality in the classroom. Mere chalking and talking does not solve the purpose. Only teaching aids can sharpen it.

Remove Misconceptions: A film once seen can be reviewed by discussion among students and with the teacher. It films is shown again students can correct their faults and unconsciously overlooked information are corrected simultaneously.

Solutions to Teaching Problems: The timely use of proper aids helps in solving partly or fully many teaching problems and hence learning is improved.

Easiest Way of Learning: It is the easiest way of learning. When an object is seen by the child its image is formed in his mind.

Provides Variety and Freshness: It breaks repetition of lesson and brings variety to the class room technique which is always welcomed by the students.

Simplify Teacher's Work: It makes the work of teachers simplified. A teacher can handle large number of students at a time.

Freedom in the Class-Room: It provides freedom to the students in the class-room. They can discuss, comment and question. They are inspired to do work without the fear of the teacher.

Scientific Attitude: It gives opportunity to develop scientific attitude and give training in the scientific method.

Based on Principles of Psychology: Audio-visual aids are based on principles of psychology. It gives child-centered education.

To Cover Present Curriculum: The extended field of education can be covered only by using teaching aids.                  

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

The traditional classroom teaching was an encyclopedic, memory oriented, recitative method only concerned with accumulation and reproduction of a vast store of unrelated isolated facts where memory was the focal point. Today it has been researched and proved that “concrete experience should form the basis of meaningful learning”. Thus we use a variety of teaching aids while teaching in the classroom. The vast number of teaching aids has necessitated the need for classification of teaching aids. Based on the use of two major organs; eyes and ears, teaching aids are classified as;

Ø  Audio Aids

Ø  Visual Aids

Ø  Audiovisual Aids

Audio Aids

          The student gains knowledge using the sense of hearing i.e., by only hearing.

Visual Aids

         The student gains knowledge using the sense of sight i.e., by only seeing.

Audiovisual Aids

        The student gains knowledge using both the sense of hearing and seeing.

Audio Aids	Visual Aids		Audiovisual Aids
Radio	Chalkboard	Flannel Board	Lecture Demonstration
Tape Recorder	Bulletin Board	Flip books	Films
Lingua phone	Charts	Illustrated  Books	Sound Film Strips
CD’s	Drawings	Album or Scrap Book	Television
Microphone	Posters/ Pictures	Magnetic Boards	Computers
Dictaphone	Exhibits	Maps	Video Tapes
Head phone	Flash Cards	Graphs	VCD’s & DVD’s
	Photographs	Slides	LCD’s
	Silent Films	Models
	Epidiascope	Magic Lantern
	Overhead Projector

Teaching Aids Based on the Projection While Using

Based on the mode of projection or non-projection, teaching aids i.e., visual aids are classified as projected and non-projected aids respectively.

Projected Aids:  Those aids which help projecting visual on to a screen

Non-Projected Aids: Visual aids which do not help in their projection on to a screen.

                                                                      Visual Aids

                        

Projected Aids Silent Motion Pictures Film Strips                                                                                Magic Lanterns Micro Projections                                                                 Slide Projections Opaque and Overhead Projectors

Non-Projected Aids Different types of boards-      Black board, Flannel board, Magnetic board, Bulletin board, etc. Display material, photographs, posters, maps, charts, graphs Models, specimens Book, Illustrations

                     

Teaching Aids based on Motion

         Aids are two kinds based on the principle of movement or motion as static and dynamic aids.

Static Aids: Those aids used in classroom teaching which do not move and the visuals are at rest.

Dynamic Aids: Those aids in which visuals or parts are capable of being made to move by mechanical principles.

                                                                 Teaching Aids

                                                                                                                                     

Static Aids Flash Cards Charts Slides OHP’s, Epidiascope Microscope

Dynamic Aids Working Models Motion Pictures Television Computers

                        

                             

                                           

Teaching Aids based on Dimensions of Objects

         Based on visibility dimension of the object, aids are classified into two types.

Two Dimension Aids: In these aids only 2 dimensions i.e., length and width or length and height are only visible.

3-D Aids: In these aids all the 3 dimensions of length, breadth and height are visible.                                                     

 

2 Dimensional Aids Charts/Graphs/Maps Pictographs Boards of different types Puppets

3-D Aids Models/Globes/Objects Mocks-ups Specimens

Teaching Aids based on Size of Media                                                                                                                         

            Based on size media teaching aids are classified into two types:

Big Media: Includes computer, TV, VCR etc.

Little Media: Includes radio, filmstrips, graphics, visuals, audio cassettes etc.

Teaching Aids based on the Number of Sense Organs Used

            Depending on the number of sense organs used, teaching aids are classified into two types.

Uni Model Aids: Those aids in which only one type of sense organ i.e., either visual or auditory are used.

Bi Model Aids:  Those aids in which both the sense organs visual and auditory are used.

                                                               Teaching Aids

                                                                                                                                     

    

Uni Modal Aids                                                                                         Bi- Modal Aids

Audio Aids                                                                                Audiovisual Aids

Visual Aids

                                                                                                                                     

Projected Aids                         Non Projected Aids

EDGAR DALE’S CONE OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES

A concept model of utilizing the learning experience is popularly known as ‘Cone of Experiences’ and was developed by Edgar Dale. This model is based on a board spectrum of educational methods and media. It has been researched and established that, people generally remember:

·         10% of what they read - reading text

·         20% of what they hear - hearing words

·         30% of what they see - looking at pictures

·         50% of what they see and hear - watching a movie or demonstration

·         70% of what they say and write - participating in a discussion, giving a talk

·         90% of what they say and do – doing a presentation/teaching others

Our sense organs are the gateways to acquire knowledge. It has been proved by research that, we learn:

·         1% through taste

·         1.5% through tough

·         3.5% through smell

·         11.0% through hearing

·         83.3% through sight

Dale proposed that learning is stimulated progressively from concrete (i.e. hands-on) experiences to abstract (i.e. verbal and visual) symbols. The foundations for instruction reside in direct sensory experiences companied with purposeful interaction with stimuli sources. Dale’s cone is most useful as a guide for introducing and building concepts. At the most basic and effective level of instruction, students are introduced to new material through actual “hands-on experience or doing the real thing”. Students see do and talk about the concept. Learning will be effectively complied if these conditions are fulfilled. At the top of the cone, or triangle is lecture and text. Dale’s model suggests that these passive instructional modes are the least effective ways to introduce new concepts to students. Between the top and bottom of the cone, dale have several other levels are instruction including giving a talk, watching a demonstration, seeing a film or picture.

The cone are experience’ as a model has ten bands. The model suggests a comparative approach to effective teaching- learning process. The model sources a progression of learning experience from “direct purposeful experience to abstract verbal expression”. The progression suggest that the effectiveness of teaching increases from base to pinnacle. The verbal symbol provides the lowest amount of learning and so it is put as the smallest band on the top. Direct purposeful experience provides better learning and hence is indicated by the largest band at the base. Starting from the pinnacle the dale’s cone consists of verbal symbol (lecture) visual symbol (poster, pamphlet), recording, radio, still pictures, motion pictures(film) educational television, exhibition, study strip, demonstration, role play, model and project, finally ending at learning by doing in the base.

All the experiences that human beings derive are mainly from these sources:

Ø  Direct sensory contact that involves doing.

Ø  Pictures or some other forms of representation of objects which involves observing.

Ø  Oral or printed words which are symbolic

1. Direct Purposeful Experience

This forms the base of the cone and represents reality as we experience it firsthand. It is the experience gained through direct contact with the senses: handling, testing, touching, smelling etc., “an ounce of experience is better than a tonne of theory” and hence direct experience is the best possible method of teaching effectively. For example: The best way to understand how hydrogen puts off a fire is to hear the ‘pop’ sound. The spectacular kaleidoscope designs cannot be described only seen to be believed.

2. Contrived Experience

A contrived experience is an imitation of reality. It is like a working model, which is a replica of reality and differs from the original in either size or in complexity. It is not possible to present a real object/ event in all cases. In some cases the real object may be two big, may be very minute, concealed etc. in such cases a contrived experience would better serve the purpose since it is an edited version which makes reality easier to grasp.

3. Dramatic Participation

Life is a short journey in which it is impossible to experience everything firsthand directly. Also we cannot experience things of the past. Dramatic participation is a means by which certain real events are represented so that we can get as close to reality as possible. Thus we participate in a reconstructed experience as close to the original as possible. Puppt sours, pagents, pantomimes, tableaux, mock conventions, plays , conventional dramas are various forms of dramatization

There is a distinction between an observer and a participant. The experience is more meaningful when one actively participates rather than merely watch it. A keen observer does get the feeling of being in the actors shoes.

4. Demonstration

In this form the student gets the experience by seeing how certain things are performed by the teacher. In every subject where would be certain complicated, hostiy and hazardous aspects which are better handled by teachers. In such cases the students take a back seat role and become passive observers. But the demonstration could be made meaningful and interesting by using inductive / deductive approaches.

5. Field-trips

Field-trip is nothing but an on-the-spot study of the aspects by bringing the students face-to-face with reality.it is a bridge between the school and the community. There are numerous opportunities for the school to utilize the community resources.by Field-trips students get firsthand experience with phenomena and aspects which cannot be brought into the classroom.

6. Exhibition/ Museums

An exhibit is something which one sees as a spectator or visitor at exhibitions or museums. When it is not feasible to go into the community, then the outside world is brout in to the classroom in the form of exhibits and concrete representation of things. Exhibits consist of working models, charts, replicas, specimens etc. in which one is not involved in handling it or making it work but remains a passive observer.

7. Still Pictures

Pictures, illustrations, stereographs, slides, filmstrips and micro projections are one-dimensional. They can be either projected on to a screen by means of projection machines and accessory equipment or given for individual study. They provide only visual experience whereas radio and recordings provide auditory experience only. Television or motions pictures are presented in a proper sequence where as these materials are individual items. The experience of seeing is less ordered and formalized.

8. Motion Pictures and Educational Television

Motion pictures present an abstract version of the real event, with consequent losses as well gains. The motion pictures can dramatize events effectively and make the experience as close to reality as possible. In comparison with field trips, motion pictures omit unnecessary details and presents only necessary aspects.

Television is one step ahead of motion pictures since it can bring the real event as it actually happens. A television telecast is often history in the making.

9. Radio and Recordings

Radio and recordings are a very cost effective means of information transmission though the communication is ‘one-way’ only. In comparison to television and motion pictures, radio and recordings provide only auditory experience.

10. Visual Symbols

Black boards, charts, graphs, maps, photographs, pictures are abstract substitutes of reality. Herein the communication is by means of visual symbols. They tend to promote a keen interest and better understanding concepts. For example: graphs can more effective to show variation in variables, compared to mere numbers.

11. Verbal Symbols

They lie at the pinnacle of the cone. They are the most abstract in nature. A verbal symbol may be a word, an idea or a concept or a scientific principle, a formula, a philosophical aphorism. The word, idea or scientific principle expressed has no resemblance to the objects for which it stands. We can think of two verbal symbols spoken and written. Linguistics considers the spoken word to be primary and written to be secondary.

Interpretation of Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experiences

·         Lower levels of the cone involve the students as a participant and encourage active learning.

·         Lower levels include more stimuli and are richer with regard to natural feedback- the consequences of action.

·         Higher levels compress information and provide data faster for those who are able to process it.

·         Pictures are remembered (recalled) better than verbal propositions.

·          Pictures aid in recalling information that has been associated with them.

·         Upper levels of the cone need more instructional support than lower levels.

·         As we go up the cone, abstractness increases and is highest at the pinnacle i.e. verbal symbols.

·         As we go down the cone, concreteness increases and is maximum at the base i.e., direct purposeful experiences.

TYPES OF MEDIA: PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA

Media

The term media refers to the communication devices which can be used to communicate and interact with a large number of audiences in different languages. It is an inseparable part of our lives. It helps in communication and spreading information. There are two types of media,

Ø  Print Media

Ø  Non-Print Media

PRINT MEDIA

             Print Media is the oldest form of media. It refers to the printed works. It delivers the news and information through printed publications.

Types of Print Media

* Newspapers              * Billboard

* Books                       * Flyers

* Magazines                * Brochure

* Newsletters              * Banner

Newspapers

Newspaper is published daily or weekly and it covers variety of topics like local and international news through newspapers one can get news, information and updation. One can learn and develop one’s language by reading newspaper. It includes topics from different fields like politics; current affairs and entertainment include Puzzles, Crossword, Sudoku, Quiz and Riddles which create interest among the readers. Newspaper based activities language students in interesting and enjoyable activities. It also encourages the students to further reading. Thus newspaper plays a vital role in providing information regarding all kind of topics, updating the knowledge of the readers.

Functions of Newspapers

Ø  Newspapers provide information.

Ø  It provides entertainment.

Ø  It helps to improve one’s language.

Ø  It is used to update every individual with new information.

Books

Book is the best source of education. The materials for formal and informal education are available in the form of books. Many students depend upon this medium in the field of education. Even though the modern technology has its impact on every individual. This medium is still a popular thing for the purpose of learning. By reading books, one can gain knowledge and information about particular topic. A book may be in hard copy or in electronic format is called as e-book. It is considered as the best source of knowledge.

Functions of Books

Ø  By reading books, one can develop one’s language.

Ø  It provides information and relaxation.

Ø  Reading books regularly make an individual to improve his reading skills.

Ø  It gives pleasure.

Magazines

            Magazines are printed materials that provide information in various fields. Usually a magazine comes periodically either weekly, monthly, quarterly or annually. It helps an individual who is looking some information based on particular subject. Magazines are like newspaper but they are more colourful than newspapers. There are also some magazines which are suitable for every age group magazines contain current affairs, short stories, colourful photographs, proverbs, etc. Children and teenagers are attracted by magazines because they are child-friendly, full of pictures and colors.

Functions of Magazines

Ø  Magazine provides a valuable source of materials.

Ø  It helps the teachers to make use of it in many different subjects and occasion.

Ø  It enriches every individual’s vocabulary.

Ø  It serves as a tool to motivate the students reading skill.

Ø  Magazines are appeal to specific target groups than newspapers. One can get specific idea for specific topics from magazines.

NON-PRINT MEDIA

Non-Print Media refers in the form of media that delivers and accesses news and information through electronic medium. It is used in the distance teaching with the help of radio, television, computer, tele-conferencing and video-disc.

Uses of Non-Print Media

Ø  It facilitates learning objectives.

Ø  Electronic media or Non-Print media can motivate the learner, stimulate imagination, create and sustain interest through the varieties and newness.

Ø  It helps to make the learner to get more involvement and keep the concentration level high.

Ø  It reduces the burden of the teacher.

Types of the Non-Print Media

* Radio                       * Mobile Phones

* Television                 * Computer

* Films            * Internet

Radio

Broadcasting is the distribution of sound to a number of listeners who belong to large group. Radio broadcasting forms a very large segment of the media. When comparing to other devices like television, computer, radio is easily repairable. It consumes less current and it can be operated using battery. It is suitable for certain subjects such as language and music.

Types of Radio Programmes

Ø  Service -Based Types

Ø  Model-Based Types

Functions of Radio

Ø  Radio provides opportunity for developing listening comprehension.

Ø  It helps the students to imagine when exposed to broadcasting.

Ø  Through radio, learning is easy.

Ø  It supports the learners and motivates them to learn.

Television

Television is one of the most powerful media of mass communication that is prevailing in our day-to-day life. It is mean of providing formal education as well as non-formal education. People can watch the important happenings around the world through television at home. One can get news and information and entertainment from television. It also includes electronic media like movies, CD’s and DVD’s as well as the electronic gadgets.

Function of Television

Ø  Television stimulates and reinforces ideas.

Ø  It provides suitable illustration that will stimulate class discussion.

Ø  It beholds the attention of the audience.

Films

Films are considered as the most important non-print media that have its own influence on society. They are considered to be a significant art which educate and entertain every individual. It may be used for the communication of ideas and experiences to a large number of people.

Types of Films

Ø  Instructional Films

Ø  Documentary Films 

Functions of Films

Ø  It helps to achieve certain educational activities.

Ø  It is useful in teaching and learning process.

Ø  The motion pictures motivate the learners and help to develop good study habits.

Computers/ Laptops

            In the world of science and technology, computers and laptop play a vital role in every field. Therefore in the field of education computer has its impact. It is used in educational institutes to improve the learning process. Imparting education has become easier by using computer. By using computer the teacher can prepare presentations for effective teaching. These electronic presentations will be displayed on multimedia projectors in class rooms. It helps to attract the attention of the students. It saves time. Through computer, audio-visual technique is possible. Internet is a global computer network that facilitates both information and communication. With the help of internet, students can access free video lectures online and refer to encyclopedias and study material in multimedia formats.

Functions of Computers/ Laptops

Ø  Storage of information

Ø  Quick data processing

Ø  Audio-visual aids in teaching

Ø  Better presentation of information

Ø  Access to the Internet

Ø  Quick communication between students, teachers and parents

Mobile Phone/Tabs

            A mobile phone, cell phone, or hand phone and also known mobile, cell or phone, is a portable telephone used for communication. It is used to make and receive calls. Through mobile one can transfer money. In the field of education, mobile phone plays a significant role. Mobile learning or m-learning is an educational system. Mobile learning supports a continuous access to the learning process with the help of mobile devices. Through mobile phone one can access internet for getting information. The internet also helps the students to improve their social life. It allows the students to communicate regarding their projects and doubts. The use of internet in classrooms often allows the students to work in a group and sharing their ideas. From these positive experience students can improve their attitudes about learning. By using educational mobile apps one can improve one’s knowledge and skill.

Functions of Mobile Phone/Tabs

Ø  Mobile phone helps in communication.

Ø  It provides entertainment through mobile games.

Ø  It is one of the best tools used for improving skills.

Ø  Mobile phones are used to set reminders for various important events.

Ø  Mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services.

EDUCATIONAL RADIO

The radio is the cheapest and the most easily accessible of all these means.  No doubt, its potential audience is very large in comparison to the audience of other mass media.  It caters needs to the people of different ages and level of maturity ranging from a primary school child to its grandfather.

While all these attributes make it a wide-reaching means of mass communication, it has a pedagogically strong reason for its use in education and that it its versatility, leading to serve different purposes.

History of Educational Radio

It was a great invention that human voice could be transmitted by electromagnetic waves over long distance without the help of a wire.  The radio which achieved it brought thereby a new age in the area of communication.

In India, as early as July 23, 1927, a radio station at Bombay was formally inaugurated by Lord Irwin.  It was followed by the Calcutta Radio Station and the Delhi Radio Station.  According to the 1984 report (Broadcasting in India 1984;1).  The All India Radio (AIR) network, one of the largest in the world, consisted of 86 radio stations equipped with 162 transmitters.  The development of educational radio has two sides to it:

                    i.            The establishment of broadcast network and

                  ii.            The preparation and production of specific educational programs.

As far as the broadcast network is concerned, the AIR as made a tremendous achievement having managed to reach as much as about 90% of the population of this large country.  It is matter or pride that it is one of the networks in the world.

As for the educational programs, the broadcast-projects that we discussed in the section suggest how efforts had been all along towards both formal and non-formal education. 

The attempt to make school broadcasts more curriculum oriented and the attempt to make university broadcasts supplement the correspondence education have made the educational radio more purposeful and specific.  The broadcasts programs of non-formal education for the AIR have recorded tremendous success in achieving worthy objectives in the areas of agriculture and rural development.

The introduction of educational radio can be viewed in five types

ü   School broadcasts

ü   Adult educational and community development project.

ü   Farm and Home broadcasts

ü   University broadcasts

ü   Language learning projects

Use of Devices in Educational Radio

     Some devices of independent and accessory function have come into use along with the radio in the recent days.  Besides, these devices have also been cheap enough to be within reach of a considerable large proportion of the population.  There are two main devices.

Ø   Audio-Tapes

Ø   Radio-vision

Audio-Taps

Audio-taps can overcome the limitations of educational radio broadcasts.  It provides considerable freedom to the students.  It can be used when the individuals need it and at any time and place convenient to them.  The audio-tape permits a degree of privacy and confidentially which is not possible in the case of radio broadcasts.

The audio-tape recorder is comparatively inexpensive, simple to operate, durable and portable.  This technology is available at commercial level too.

Radio-Vision

Pioneered by the BBC, the technique of radio-vision allows the subject matter to be presented through two channels, the audio and the visual.  This is used by educational institution as a substitute for educational television, Radio-vision has its own advantages:

ü   It is economical.

ü   It can cater to different categories of learners.

ü   It is easy to produce such programs at the institutional level or at the learning Centre’s.

ü   It provides visual support to the concept that is taught.

Types of Radio Programmes

Different types of radio programmes are in vogue.  These types can be broadly categorized into two groups.

v   Service-Based Types

v   Mode-Based Types

Service-Based Types

     From the service point of view, radio programmes can be grouped into different types.

Ø  Music

Ø  Spoken-work programme

Ø  Programme for special Audiences

Ø  Agriculture and Home Programme

Ø  External service

Mode-Based Types

     On the basis of format, radio programmes can be grouped into different types.

Ø  Straight Talk

Ø  Interview

Ø  Panel table

Ø  Reality Broadcast

Ø  Dramatization

Uses and Advantages of Radio

     We identify here some uses and advantages that contribute to its potential.

Ø  Easy Accessibility

Ø  Wide Coverage

Ø  Low Capital Investment and Operating Cost

Ø  Easy Learning-Reception

Ø  Effective Thought Promotion

Ø  Motivation supportive Facilities

Ø  Easy Production

Ø  Effective Re-creation of Reality

Ø  Feasible Mode of Learner-Enrichment

Ø  Direct Instruction.

Limitations of Educational Radio

ü  Educational radio programmes have not been given adequate and appropriate broadcast time-chunk.  This phenomenon causes inconvenience to learners.

ü   The technical staff concerned with the planning and production of radio programme doesn’t have adequate knowledge of the relevant pedagogical needs of the learners and their characteristics.

ü   So unless there is a perfect co-ordination and understanding between the two groups, no good production could ever be achieved.

EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION

Television is a widely used telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images, either monochromatic (black & white) or color, usually accompanied by sound.

Major Educational Values of TV

·       Communication using the TV can be effective because its can transmit a wide range of audiovisual materials like film, objects, pictures etc.

·          Educational Television is a great equalizer of educational opportunity.

·          It can bring the world of reality to the classroom.

·          Television can save the time of both teacher and taught.

·         It can heighten the interest in the topic, as by using zoom shots, magnification and split screen, the students gets good view of whatever is being demonstrated or shown on TV.

Educational Television Programmes

§   Secondary School Television Project (STV)

§   Delhi Agriculture Television (DATV)

§   Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)

§   Post-SITE Project

§   Indian National Satellite (INSAT)

§   Higher National Television Project (HETV) of UGC

Possible Limitations of Educational TV

Ø   TV, like film and radio, could lead to a class of passive students.

Ø   Television moves ahead at a constant speed.  Thus the students cannot pace their educational technology learning.

Ø  The program schedules of TV, could raise administrative problems in some schools.

Ø  As larger and larger numbers of students and taught by TV,  they will no longer have personal contact with a teacher.

Major Characteristics of Educational TV

Instructor Guide: A teacher on camera leads the students through learning experiences.

Systematic Broadcasts: These are related to course of study with objectives and planned learning experiences.

Ordered and Sequential: The broadcasts are presented at regular intervals in sequence one builds upon another.

Integrated: The broadcasts are related to other learning experiences such as experimentation and problem-solving.

Advantages of Educational Television

ü   Social Equality of Education

ü   Higher Quality of Instruction

ü   Reduce Dependency on Teacher

ü   Flexibility and Cost effectiveness

ü   Use of the Best Available Teacher

ü  Logically simple

ü   Combination of Audio and Video Components

ü   Stimulation

ü   Mass Education

Limitations

Finance: Schools, using indigenous material can easily make bulletin boards, flannel boards etc. They could also pool in their resources and buy a common set of devices which could be borrowed from a central authority as and when required.

Poor Selection of Films: Most of the audiovisual aids are irrelevant to the school needs.  It is necessary to match student needs, abilities and level with the audiovisual aids. Teachers are not properly trained in use of audiovisual aids.

SELECTION AND INTEGRATION OF MEDIA IN TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS

The media have significant place in organizing the process of teaching-learning, but selection of appropriate media is a challenging task for the teacher as there are various types of teaching aids. The effective media can be selected by employing the criterion i) Teaching-Learning objectives ii) Learning Conditions or structures.

Teaching-Learning objectives

            Media should help to achieve the cognitive, affective and psychomotor objective among the learners, since the attainment of objectives is the primary factor in the teaching-learning process.

Learning Conditions or Structures

Learning objectives can be achieved only by creating appropriate conditions or situation. So, for the selection and use of media in a classroom, suitable and conducive learning structure or environment is a must.

It is very important to consider when and how instructional media should be used during the teaching process. ‘When’ means the situation which demands the use of such media while ‘how’ indicates the precautions to be observed during the use of these media. Merely the collection of instructional media is not the success of the teaching process and the teacher. The effective use is also important. Therefore the teacher should possess the knowledge of methods and precautions for using the media effectively. The descriptions of such precautions are given below:

Use in Three Stage of the Lesson

The media aids should be used in the three stages of a lesson namely, introduction, presentation and recapitulation. All these stages have different objectives; during introduction, the media are used to create pupil’s interest in the lesson. At the presentation stage, they are used to clarify the minute facts and difficult thought to the pupils.   

Use According to the Needs

The media should be used in the class when these are needed. Without any need, their use would be ineffective and it would merely the wastage of time. Also, there is possibility of indiscipline in the classroom. So, it is more required to use properly than in excess.

Sufficient Time for Thinking and Observation

            These should not be merely displayed for a while but sufficient time should be given to the pupils after displaying, so that they may observe and think about them for a longer time. If the pupils want to ask questions related to the teaching aids, they should be allowed to do so.

Ask Questions

            The questions should be asked in the context of the material presented in the class, because this practice will make the subject matter easy and clear. In the absence of questioning, the teaching becomes ineffective and the presented media fail to leave any effect.

Variation in the Use of Media

            It is also essential to pay attention towards the boring conditions in the class. The teacher should not present the same media aids all the time. This creates boredom in the pupils.

Way of Presenting

Media should be presented properly in the class. The teacher should either hang the teaching aids on the wall or display them on the table. He should never display the teaching aids by holding them in his hands. With the teacher’s movement, the teaching aids held by the teacher in the hands will also get disturbed. Hence, the pupils cannot concentrate their mind on the teaching aids and their attention gets divided or diverted.

Preparation of the Background for Media

            Before presenting the media in the class, the teacher should prepare the background about the subject-matter in the context of those aids. This concentrates their mind very quickly and also saves the time.

Media should be used to Clarify Difficult Parts of the Lesson

            While presenting the media in the class it should be decided which part of the lesson is much difficult and complicated? It would be useful to use the media only to clarify effectively and to make easy that difficult part of the lesson.

 Removal of Media after Displaying

            After displaying, the media should be removed from the scene immediately, because the pupils’ attention will remain diverted if the aids are not removed. Pupils will look at these aids continuously and they will not pay attention towards the teachers’ teaching. After Displaying Media, Come to the Main Lesson

            The teacher should avoid the deviation from his main lesson. He should concentrate on his lesson, otherwise the interest of the pupils will get eliminated and indiscipline in the class will crop up.

ROBERT GLASER MODEL (1962)

Robert Glaser developed this model in 1962. It explains the relationship between teaching and learning. It provides a simple and adequate conceptualization of the teaching process. This model belongs to the category of psychological models of teaching.

Why this teaching model is basic teaching model

• It is called Basic teaching model because it presents a very basic analysis of the process of teaching in terms of the elements of teaching.
• This model applies to all levels of education i.e., elementary, secondary, higher etc.. It is also applied to subject matter related to any subject as a teacher can use this model for teaching them.
• Teaching for any length of time (40 minutes, 1 hour, weeks etc.) is possible using this model. It explains the whole teaching learning process by dividing it into four basic components

1. Instructional objectives
2. Entering behaviour
3. Instructional procedures
4. Performance assessment

 

Assumptions of Basic Teaching Model

• It is developed on the assumption that “every lesson assumes some knowledge on the part of the learner”
• Through instructional procedure, the teacher guides the learner from entry behaviour to terminal behaviour.

Components of Basic Training Model

Step 1:  Instructional Objectives

The instructional objective is those objectives that the student should attain upon completion of a unit of instruction.

• These objectives may be stated in general, specific or in behavioural terms.
• For instruction to be effective and systematic, the instructional objectives are stated in behavioural terms.

Step 2: Entering Behaviour

• Every learner has initial behaviour before he enters teaching-learning process.
• It is essential to detect the entering behaviour of the learner before giving instructions.
• It is just like previous knowledge of a subject or the performance of the learner in terms of educational abilities.
• This step is important because only after this step the teacher can take the students from entry behaviour to terminal behaviour.

Step: 3 Instructional Procedures

• It is the most active part of the teaching process.
• It indicates the method, procedure, and strategies of teaching which depends on objectives and entry behaviour of the learner.
• This component depends on two previous components.

Step: 4 Performance Assessments

• Here ultimate behaviour of the learner is tested so that feedback may be given.
• If the need arises objectives may be modified, the instructional procedure may be improved and assessment of performance is made again.
• Evolution techniques used for the purpose of assessment tests are observation, interview, rating scale etc.
• All four basic components are interrelated with one another. They interact and influence each other.
• If the performance assessment indicates that the learners have not been able to achieve the objectives set for them, necessary changes are brought about in any one or all proceeding components of this model so that the goals of instruction are attained.

Description of Glaser’s Basic Training Model

Glaser’s models may be described in terms of the fundamental elements as under:

1. Focus: – This model attempts to pin point the process and major activities comprising the entire teaching, learning process. It also brings into the light sequence to be followed in the instructional process.
2. Syntax: – In this model flow of activities is sequential as listed below:-
   (a) First, the objectives to be followed are fixed in accordance with Blooms Taxonomy. (b) Then the entering behaviour showing the understanding and background of the student is determined.(c) Thereafter the instruction work is carried out to achieve the objectives keeping in view the entering behaviour of the learner.(d) The ultimate behaviour of the learner is determined by using a different type of tests.
3. Social system: - The model describes a teacher dominated classroom climate. Here students are receptive and appreciative of the teaching activities. The success of this model depends upon the competency and ability of the teacher in term of various skills like the formulation of objectives, use of proper strategies, techniques of evolution etc.
4. Principles of reaction: - Main principles of reaction are as follows. (a) Principles of interdependence: -The student’s responses are to be understood and dealt within the light of the interaction and interdependence, process and assessments. (b) The principle of active involvement: -Proper execution of this model requires a lot of activity on the part of the teacher. The model requires the active involvement of the teacher from the beginning to the end. Understanding of the potential and deficiencies of the students is required at every stage of the teacher in order to achieve the objectives. (c) Principles of follow up: – An assessment is made after teaching. In case the results are not accordance with set objectives, gaps and deficiencies are found out by the teacher. Then he tries to rectify the drawbacks by taking corrective measures.
5. Support system: – The teacher needs following support systems for its success.(a) Proper environment: – proper teaching learning environment and situations are required for the use of suitable teaching strategies.(b) Pre-service and In service facilities:- availability of adequate pre-service and in-service activities to the teachers to acquire needed skills for using this model.(c) Availability of appropriate evolution device for the assessment of entering and terminal behaviour of the students.
6. Application: – Since the model is quite systematic and structured, it is applicable to almost all the learning and teaching situations. It implies a personal contact between the teacher and the student. It implies a greater emphasis on the competency of the teacher rather than on his personality.

IGNATIAN PEDAGOGY - A PRACTICAL APPROACH

Introduction

The Ignatian pedagogical paradigm is a method of teaching and learning that is rooted in the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola. Ignatian Pedagogy was published in 1993, after worldwide discussion and consultation, as a response to questions teachers in Jesuit schools were asking about whether there was a distinctively Jesuit approach to teaching itself. The foundational document The Characteristics of Jesuit Education (1986) had articulated the identity and mission of Jesuit schools and was received with an enthusiasm, which led to a renewal of how Jesuit schools understood themselves. Ignatian Pedagogy aims to do the same for the classroom teacher in a Jesuit school.

What is the Goal?

Ignatian education strives to develop men and women of competence, conscience, and compassion. It is a collaborative process between and among faculty and students which fosters personal and cooperative study, discovery, creativity, and reflection to promote life-long learning and action in service to others. The Ignatian pedagogical paradigm is a practical teaching framework which is consistent with and effective in communicating the Ignatian values and world view. Faculty, regardless of discipline, can utilize this approach so that their teaching is academically sound and at the same time formative of persons for others.

What is the Process?

Ignatian pedagogy is a model that promotes the goal of Jesuit education, speaks to the teaching-learning process, addresses the faculty-student relationship, and has practical meaning and application for the classroom. Similar to the process of guiding others in the Spiritual Exercises, faculty accompany students in their intellectual, spiritual, and emotional development. They do this by creating the conditions, laying the foundations, and providing the opportunities for the continual interplay of the student's experience, reflection, and action to occur.

Throughout the process, it is important that faculty be sensitive to their own experience, attitudes, and opinions lest they impose their own agenda on their students. The Ignatian pedagogical process includes the following elements: context, experience, reflection, action, and evaluation.

Through consideration of the factors and context of students' lives, faculty create an environment where students recollect their past experience and assimilate information from newly provided experiences. Faculty help students learn the skills and techniques of reflection, which shapes their consciousness, and they then challenge students to action in service to others. The evaluation process includes academic mastery as well as ongoing assessments of students' well-rounded growth as persons for others.

Context

Since human experience, always the starting point in Ignatian pedagogy, never occurs in a vacuum, we must know as much as we can about the actual context within which teaching and learning take place. We as faculty need to understand the world of our students, including ways in which family, friends, social pressures, politics, economics, media and other realities affect them. For a relationship of authenticity and truth to flourish between faculty and student, there has to be built a mutual trust and respect that grows out of a continuing experience of the other as genuine companion in learning. We need to know how to create an atmosphere for learning where we help one another and work together with enthusiasm and generosity, attempting to model concretely in word and action the ideals we uphold for our students and ourselves.

Experience

Experience for Ignatius meant to "taste something internally" which involves the whole person - mind, heart, and will - because without internal feeling joined to intellectual grasp, learning will not move a person to action.

To enhance learning, we faculty should first create the conditions whereby students gather and recollect the material of their own experience in order to distill what they already understand in terms of facts, feelings, values, insights, and intuitions related to the subject matter at hand. Later we guide students in assimilating new information and further experience so that their knowledge will gain in completeness and truth.

We select activities that take students beyond rote knowledge to the development of the more complex learning skills of understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Through an eclectic mix of direct activities (such as conversations and discussions, simulations, role plays, laboratory investigations, field trips, service projects, etc.) and vicarious activities (reading, listening to a lecture, etc.). We strive to create learning experiences that involve the cognitive as well as affective responses, having students consider the questions, "What is this?" and, "How do I react to it?" We also help students integrate learning experiences in the classroom with those of home, work, peer culture, etc.

Reflection

Reflection and discernment were integral parts of Ignatius' learning process. Reflection is a thoughtful reconsideration of some subject matter, experience, idea, purpose or spontaneous reaction, in order to grasp its significance more fully.

Thus, reflection is the process by which meaning surfaces in human experience by:

·         understanding the truth being studied more clearly;

·         understanding the sources of one's sensations or reactions in the consideration; deepening one's understanding of the implications for oneself and others;

·         achieving personal insights into events, ideas, truths or the distortion of truth;

·         coming to an understanding of who I am and who I might be in relation to others.

Reflection is a formative and a liberating process, which forms the conscience of learners in such a manner, that they are led to move beyond knowing, to undertake action. Faculty lay the foundations for "learning how to learn" by engaging students in the skills and techniques of reflection.

A major challenge to faculty is to formulate questions that will broaden students' awareness and impel them to consider viewpoints of others.

Action

For Ignatius, love is shown in deeds not words. Faculty hope that students are impelled to move beyond knowing to action−action that is for the welfare of society. It is our role as faculty to see that opportunities are provided that will challenge the imagination and exercise the will of the students to choose the best possible course of action to flow from and follow up on what they have learned.

Through experiences that have been reflected upon, students make the truth their own and serve others. Faculty helps students to consider their experience from a personal, human point of view, while remaining open to where the truth might lead.

Evaluation

Ignatian pedagogy aims at formation, which includes but goes beyond academic mastery. Here we are concerned about students' well-rounded growth as persons for others. Traditional ongoing academic evaluation can alert faculty to possible needs for use of alternative methods of teaching; it also offers special opportunities to individualize encouragement and advice for academic improvement for each student.

On the other hand, periodic evaluation of the student's growth in attitudes, priorities, and actions consistent with being a person for others is essential. Faculty should foster relationships of mutual trust and respect which set a climate for discussion and growth.

Useful evaluative processes include mentoring and reviews of student journals, as well as student self-evaluation in light of personal growth profiles, leisure time activity, and voluntary service to others. Internal or external feedback may serve to launch the learner once again into the cycle of the Ignatian learning paradigm.

What is the challenge?

Consistent use of the Ignatian paradigm can help the growth of a student:

ü  Who will gradually learn to discriminate and be selective in choosing experiences

ü  Who is able to draw fullness and richness from the reflection on those experiences

ü  Who becomes self-motivated by his or her own integrity and humanity to make conscious, responsible choices.

In addition, and perhaps most importantly, consistent use of the Ignatian paradigm can result in the acquisition of life-long habits of learning which foster attention to experience, reflective understanding beyond self-interest, and criteria for effective action. Such formative effects were characteristics of Jesuit alumni in the early Society of Jesus. They are perhaps even more necessary for responsible citizens of the third millennium.

The Ignatian pedagogical paradigm applies to all curricula and students of all ages and backgrounds, is fundamental to the teaching-learning process in and out of the classroom, helps faculty be better teachers, personalizes learning, and stresses the social dimension of both teaching and learning.

The challenge for faculty, therefore, is to find ways to bring the Ignatian pedagogical paradigm to the subjects we teach and the programs we run, knowing that it needs to be adapted and applied to our own specific situations. Through this process we will find ways to accompany our students on their journeys of becoming fully human persons.

 Unit III

ICT IN EDUCATION

ICT

Web Based Education Commission (2000) US Kerry’s report: ICT can be defined as the use of hardware and software for efficient management of information. i.e., storage, retrieval, processing, communication, diffusion and sharing of information for social economical and cultural upliftment.

The definition of ICT can be given the idea that ICT consists of

Information: its storage, retrieval and processing.

Communication: between machine and machine and machine and man.

Technology: scientific and technological aspects for managing information and communication.

Meaning of ICT

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) means the implementation of different branches of technology in information and communication processing. In a broader sense, ICT is  taken to refer to the whole set of technology concerned with communication, manipulation of information, networking, data storage, transmission - encompassing data, voice and video.

Importance of ICT

ICT can dissolve the barriers of time and place and it throws open to possibility to initiate the human activity. The main Features of ICT making it ‘the tool of knowledge society’ are, its user friendliness, speed, accuracy, high degree of reliability, high storage of capacity, integrity, consistency, logicality, diligence, versatility, low failure rate, durability and portability.

User Friendliness: The usage of ICT has its basic root on the need of the one’s who use it or need it today, this flexible use makes it a necessary tool for the developments in all era of lifestyle. For example, usage of MS-word package for documentation.

Speed: All the hardware utilities of ICT are very fast. The suitable applications of ICT can work many duties in one minute which cannot be done by a man in his lifetime. For ex, human genome project by computers.

Accuracy: The accuracy of an ICT programme is consistently high and the degree of accuracy depends upon the design of the programme. But we cannot ignore technological errors, which may cause by human beings.

Diligence: Unlike human beings, the ICT means one free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration. The ways of ICT can pay attention to every minute thing. For ex, computer based evaluation OMR.

Versatility: Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about the applications of ICT. It can be connected to a lot of wonderful devices - a simple usage of computers to the charming networking or WWW.

High Storage Capacity:  New inventions in the ICT field like blue-ray chips led to an unimaginable storage capacity for information storage. For ex, the newly produced SRAM chips (static random access memory) having one billion transistors which helps to deliver PC with improved performance per watt.

Integrity: Though ICT modes different modes can be connected together and they can work together for the achievement of entire system. The best example for the internet connectivity making a creative machine globally.

Consistency: One of the importance features of ICT is its consistency in working performance. The programmes we used through it happening in the same way and continuing for a period of time.

Logicality: Though ICT able to follow the law of logic to do a particular work.

Besides this, characteristic like low failure rate, portability via new inventions like laptops, mobile technology, Wi-Fi connectivity etc., can increase the wide application of ICT.

E-LEARNING

E-learning is an approach to facilitate and enhance learning using information and communication technologies. It is a web-based learning combine local area network, wide area network, satellite board cast etc.

            E-learning is an all en-compassing term generally used to refer to computer enhanced learning, although it is often extended to the use of mobile technologies.  E-learning is usually delivered via personal computer.  E-learning includes learning delivered by communication technologic, like online lectures, tutorials, performance support systems, simulations, job aids, games and more.  Effective E-learning is often a blend of methods.  E-learning therefore is an approach to facilitate and enhance learning through both computer and communication technology.

Features or Characteristics of E-Learning

E-learning is a Self-Paced: E-learning is self-directed in which the students can choose their contents, tools according to their interests, needs and skill.  It designed around the learner or student centered.

E-learning is Child-Safe: No dangerous for child since no chat rooms are needed, also no inappropriate sites or outside email or advertising.

E-learning is Dynamic: In e-learning content are delivered in real time not old text books or software. Online tutors and best internet library sources, graphic and active pages are make the student to study dynamically.

E-learning Operates in Real Time: In e-learning you can get what you need and when you need it. It always has up to datedness and readily accessible.

E-learning is Individual: Every e-learner selects activities from a personal menu of learning opportunities that are mostly relevant to his or her grade and skill level.

E-learning is Comprehensive:  E-learning provides learning events and activities from main sources, covering every imaginable topic, enabling the e-learning to select a format, learning method or training provider.

E-learning enables a School or Educational System: E-learning builds learning communities by enabling the school, student, parent and community to forge strong relationships.

E-learning is Interactive and Effective: E-learning is interactive and allows the learner to become actively involved with the material for maximum retention of gained knowledge.

E-BOOK

E-book is also known as electric book. An electronic book is a book publication made available in digital form. It is “an electronic version of a printed book”. Some e-boos are existing without printed equivalent.

Categories of E-Book

Ø Commercial e-book

Ø Subsidy e-book

Ø Self-publishing e-book

Free E-books

Ø Google e-book store

Ø Project Gutenberg

Ø Open library

Ø Internet archive

Ø Book boon

Ø Manybooks.net.

Ø Free e-books

Advantages of E-book

Ø Editor of e-books has total control over his book.

Ø Person can be publisher, distributor and bookshop owner at the same time.

Ø The cost of the e-book is virtually none.

Ø There is no delivery cost.

Ø The e-book can be available all around the world.

E-JOURNALS

           E-journals, also known as electronic journals are scholarly journals or intellectual magazines that can be accessed via electronic transmission. Electronic journals closely resemble a print journal in structure. Academic research habits have changed the growth of  e-journals. The journals which are web based and available online are known as e-journals. These journals have been considerable to be one of the significant applications of computers in the field of education. Journals tend to be come from two sources. Commercial publishers and titles published by associations and societies.

Characteristics and Features of E-Journal

Ø E-journals are serial publications available in digital format.

Ø E-journals can be free or available by subscription only.

Ø E-journals can differ by their format.

Ø They can be delivered to the desktop.

Ø They can be read by more than one person at same time.

Ø Their text can be searched.

Ø They can include multimedia and graphs, in color, at marginal cost.

Ø They can be interactive.

Types of E-Journal

Ø Parallel published

Ø Electronic version

Advantages

Ø  Inexpensive when compared to printed version.

Ø  Available for download with or without paying fees.

Ø  Available around the world.

Ø  Readily available for reference from any part of the world.

Disadvantages

Ø Difficulty in reading computer screens.

Ø Coverage.

Ø Archiving.

Ø Perishable citation.

TELECONFERENCING

Teleconferencing means telephone meeting among two or more participants through a telecommunication medium. It is a general term used for linking people between two or more location by electronics. Teleconferencing happens through a telecommunications medium. It is an aggregation of a conferencing, video conferencing, and data conferencing, and includes multiple participants in a live real-time session.

A teleconference is a conference that is held through a telephone system or similar network features like file sharing, joint presentation take place and other extra help to add more functionality to teleconferencing.

Types of Teleconferencing

Audio Conference: It involves transmission of voice only which are amplified at each end by the speaker system. It can usually be handled over regular telephone lines rather than needing a satellite as only voice will be transferred. It’s the most cost type.

Audio-Graphic Conference: It employs voice plus graphic display capability. The most frequently used graphic supplement is a facsimile machine which transmits electronically and reproduces at remote location anything that can be written/typed on paper. The additional cost of such operations is justified in cases where mathematical formulas and visual diagrams are critical to understanding.

Video Conference: It combines audio and video to provide voice communications and video images. It can display anything that can be captured by a TV camera. The advantage is the capability to display moving images.

Computer Conference: Uses telephone lines to connect two or more computer and modems. It can be synchronous or asynchronous. An example of an asynchronous mode is electronic mail. Items generated on computer which are normally printed and then sent by facsimile can be sent by e-mail.

Types of Electronic Conferencing

Delayed Time: It closely resembles electronic mail. The conference takes place in a simple shared ‘mail box’ on the remote system.

Real Time Conference: It is thoroughly interactive and more closely resemble a telephone conference call. This type of conferencing is especially useful among smaller groups.

Advantages of Teleconferencing

Save Time: Content presented by one or many sources is received in many places. Simultaneously and instantly. Travel is reduced resulting in more productive time. Communication is improved and meetings are more efficient. It adds a competitive edge that face to face meetings do not.

Lower Costs: Costs are reduced by keeping employees in the office, speeding up product development cycle, improving performance through frequent meetings with timely information.

Larger Audience: More people can attend. The larger audience with lower cost per person is possible in this interactive.

Dynamic: It requires the user’s active participation. It enhances personal communication. When use well for learning, the interactive will enhance the learning and the teaching experience.

Adaptable: Useful for business, associations, hospital and institutions to discuss, inform, train, educate, present.

Flexible: With a remote receive or a transmit truck, a transmit or receive site can be locate anywhere.

Security: Signals can be encrypted when it is necessary. Encryption prevents outside viewers.

Unity: Provides a shared sense of identity. More often individuals or groups at multiplying locations can be linked frequently.

Timely: For critical information, sites can be linked quickly. An audio or point to point teleconference can be arranged in three minutes.

u  Teleconferencing provides students with the opportunity to learn by participating in a 2-way communication platform.

u  Teachers and lecturers from all over the world can be brought to classes in remote.

u  It offers uniform, quality-controlled instruction to learner scattered over many or over a large area.

u  Students are able to explore, communicate, analyze and share information and ideas with one another.

Disadvantages of Teleconferencing

Interruption: People who teleconference do so using landlines, cell phones and voice over internet portal, or voice, phones. So there is a chance for interruptions during telephone meeting when calls are dropped or internet connections go dead.

Lack of Eye Contact: Eye contact is another key benefit you lose when teleconferencing.

Lack of Body Language: Teleconferencing does not let you read participants body language, which can give you clues as to whether you need to change your direction during the meeting.

„  Many people are difficult to manage in single teleconference.

„  Initial cost of equipment's is very high.

„  It takes time to organize.

„  Staffing needs can be significant.

„  Socializing is less than face to face meeting.

„  The absence of quality of service provides virtually no guarantee of a satisfying and unsuccessful experience.

INTERACTIVE WHITE BOARD

Introduction

An Interactive White Board is a large, touch sensitive board which is connected to a digital projector and a computer. The projector displays the image from the computer screen on the board. The computer can then be controlled by touching the board, either directly or with a special pen, finger, stylus or other device. The board is typically mounted to a wall or floor stand. Most interactive whiteboards connect to computers via USB cables. But some recent models communicate wirelessly using Bluetooth technology.

Interactive White Boards

v  Interactive white boards are a teaching and learning resource used for displaying and interacting with content.

v  They are generally used throughout schools and workplaces.

v  They display a computer screen via a projector which can be manipulated by teachers and students using either their hands as a mouse or specialized pens which are included with the software.

v  The computer screen remains the same only enlarged on the whiteboard so teachers and students can interact with the screen just as if it was on the computer by opening files and completing any other general computer applications using our hand or a pen.

How to Use It or Advantages of IWB

Presentation and Projects

Students can present multimedia projects with the help of IWB and control the entire presentation without touching a computer keyboard.

Web Streaming and Video

Teachers can show streamed or downloaded video clips using programmes like windows media player and quick time. Clips embedded into multimedia presentation programmes can easily be shown as well. The interactive features of the whiteboard allow users to pause, circle, annotate, highlight, etc. DVD player can be connected to the projector too.

Printing and Saving Notes

Users can print or save anything with the help of interactive white boards as they have written. Teachers can put notes in a file on a shared server for students to download or post notes on a web page or blog. Notes can also be printed and distributed. We can allow students to participate in the presentation instead of simply copying from the board.

Encouraging Critical Thinking

Interactive white boards encourage critical thinking. Use whiteboard with concept mapping software like inspiration or kidspiartion. If the teachers switch to outline view students’ ideas could be written directly on the whiteboard. Though begin the class can brainstormed together in an organized fashion.

Great for Demonstrations

To show students how to use a particular application. Students can present multimedia projects with the whiteboard, controlling the entire presentation without touching a computer keyboard.

Colorful Tool

Students respond to displays where color is employed, and marking can be customized both in the pen and in the highlighter features to display a number of different colors.

Maximize the Use of Limited Computer Access

One-computer classrooms can maximize the use of limited computer access by using the whiteboard.

Clean and Attractive Tools

There is no messy chalk dust or other by-product, which can limit use. While the board can be used with regular dry erase markers, it is more likely to be used with the electronic marking feature.

It is Interactive

The interaction that transpires between the person at the computer, the users at the board, and the computer itself is a unique and very adaptable arrangement.

Disadvantages of IWB

§  Hard to write neatly

§  Expensive

§  You need to supply your own data.

ICT FOR TESTING

Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT)

            In this technology the computer administering the test actually individually tailors the test to the student’s achievement level.  The first item of the test is generally of middle-level difficulty.  If the student gives wrong answer for this question by using mouse of keyboard, the computer offers somewhat easier questions.  Contrary to this, if the student answers the question correctly, a slightly more difficult question is offered to the student.  The number of questions required to reach a pass or fail decision is considerably fewer and thus the test time is shorter, a motivating factor especially for students with disabilities.  In case the test is lengthy as in the case of some online tests like BITS, all the students are highly motivated as the results are given to them as soon as the test is complete or the time is over. 

Advantages

Immediate Feedback:  The test can be scored immediately to provide instant feedback to the students.

Graded Difficulty: Examinees are offered questions at their ability level and are not frustrated or annoyed by too-difficult or too-easy items in the test.

Improved Test Security:  The computerized adaptive testing through a computer program contains a large pool of questions as compared to the handful of questions that make up any individual’s test.  This makes it more difficult to artificially boost one’s scores by merely learning a few questions or even types of questions.

Self-pacing:  Here examinees can work at their own speed.  If desired, the speed of responses could also be recorded for additional assessment.

Possibility of Tutorial Format:  If any questions are missed by a student could recycle and reappear later in testing, encouraging learning during the test itself, as well as remediation of incorrect responses.

Possibility of Multimedia Format:  It can include text, graphics, photographs, and even full-motion video clips, with the possibility of manipulation of the positions of items as well.

            Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) is especially beneficial in the following assessment situations:

ü  Classrooms or programs with exceptionally large enrolments.

ü  Practice tests for any high-stakes test such as the GRE, SAT, or state proficiency examinations.

ü  Proficiency protests, for use in placement. CAT tests are often used at the college level to determine in what course level to place a student.

Figural Response Item Testing

            This testing is a form of assessment used in the field of science, in which computers are used to administer a graphics-oriented assessment.  Example:  In science, students might be asked to assemble a plant cell from a menu of cell components or transform isomers of molecules using on-screen computer tools.  The scores on this test help in assessing the comprehension of basic concepts of the unit. Testing scores on such tests have shown a positive correlation to student’s verbal and figural aptitudes.

            There are programmes like Tenth Planet’s geometry programme, which allow students to recognize patterns and manipulate figures and shapes to show their understanding of them; Thinking Reader software for students reading below grade level, which helps them learn to summarize, reflect, question, and predict; quizzes in the software test recall, inference, and vocabulary as well as tracking student performance; it can print six different kinds of reports to monitor improvement.

ICT FOR EVALUATION

Types of Evaluation

            While teaching, teachers may have the choice of three major kinds of evaluation – diagnostic, formative and summative in order to help them for taking wise decisions at the three stages of the teaching-learning process.

Diagnostic Evaluation

            Such evaluation task if performed prior to teaching may help in providing information what the students know about a certain topic, contents of area of learning which is going to be taught to them.  In this way it may help the teacher to plan his instructional programme suiting the needs, interest and abilities of the students.

Formative Evaluation

            This type of evaluation is conducted well during the teaching-learning process.  It helps by providing useful information to both teacher and students about the strengths and weaknesses of their teaching and learning.  In the light of this information, they may plan and engage for the mid-course corrections in pace or content and methodology of instruction.

Summative Evaluation

            It represents a final test or measure of the student’s progress or gains made by him as a result of a course of learning.  The results of such evaluation may be safely used for making comparison among students, placing them in order of merit or taking decisions about their promotion and awarding degree or diploma.

USES OF MS OFFICE IN EDUCATION

Microsoft Office

              Microsoft office is a collection of the most popular applications that are useful for maintaining official records, employee details, financial transactions, sales statements and other documents in the form of files. These applications are also useful for generating reports, word processing, graphical representations, slide presentations and database management. 

Some of the main programmes included in Microsoft Office are:

Ø  Microsoft Word

Ø  Microsoft Excel

Ø  Microsoft Power Point

Ø  Microsoft Access

Ø  Microsoft Publisher

Microsoft Word

Microsoft word is application software programme that helps the user to create neat, attractive and effective documents easily and quickly.

Uses of MS-Word

Ø The text from one part of a document can be very easily copied to another document without disturbing the place of the original text.

Ø Without re-typing the document one can easily correct the mistakes in the document.

Ø Text can be added or deleted from any place in the document.

Ø The typed document can be checked for grammatical errors and spelling errors.

Ø Adds variety to the document by suggesting alternative words and opposite meanings.

Ø The design, style or size of the letters of the text type can be changed. Headers and footers can be written in to document.

Ø Number to the pages can be automatically given in the document pages.

Ø Margins of the document can be increased or decreased and the text can be split into two or more columns.

 Microsoft Excel

              With the advent of science and technology, human life has become highly complex and multidimensional. These software packages provide a large spreadsheet consisting of several rows and columns in which the data can be entered. It looks like a student’s report card. Excel can perform simple and complex mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Uses of Microsoft Excel

Ø  Entering data to create a worksheet.

Ø Entering data in cells, rows and columns.

Ø Processing like sorting, subtotal etc., of data.

Ø Operating with formulae and function.

Ø If we want to calculate the total marks of the each candidate we have to enter the appropriate formula into the worksheet.

Ø Preparation of different types of charts.

Microsoft Power Point

            It is also one of the software packages available in MS Office. It is very useful for classroom teaching for the presentation of information in a colourful and attractive manner.

Uses of Microsoft Power Point

Ø Power point is a presentation graphics programme that allows us to create slideshows for communicating information to the students visually and which can be shown with a projector, a computer screen or a web page.

Ø  It is used to prepare paper based presentations and handouts for our students.

Ø  Power point is that we can integrate documents and information created by other office and windows programs with the power point presentations.

Ø   It is also helps for deliver the content to the students in the different ways like on screen presentations, overhead projector transparencies, presentations on the web etc.

Ø It will increase the interest of the students.

Uses of Microsoft Access

Ø The mechanism that helps in systematically organizing information is called a data base. A database is an organized collection of information about a subject or purpose.

Ø The information in electronically conceived data base is generally organized in such a way that it is easy to update and retrieve information.

Ø They help us by keeping track of our inventories, payroll, invoicing, student profiles etc.

Ø Electronic databases and database management systems store and manipulate huge amount of data and allow us to generate require information meaningfully and effectively within a given time.

Uses of Microsoft Publisher

Ø It has a number of wizards that help users in various publishing tasks such as newsletters, websites, catalogs, flyers, greeting cards, invitation cards, banners etc.

Ø In addition it provides facility to modify standard document templates according to requirements.  

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