Physical Science - Semester I Notes

Unit I

NATURE AND SCOPE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE

The word Science has its origin from a Latin word “Scientia”, which means “to know”.

Definitions

According to Columbia Dictionary, ‘Science is an accumulated and systematized learning, in general usage restricted to natural phenomenon’.

Einstein says, “Science is an attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience corresponds to logically uniform systems of thoughts”.

“Science is a systematic and organized body of knowledge, based on cumulative observations, experiments and inferences and is involved in finding out the meaning of various phenomenon of nature”.                                            - S. P.  Kulshrestha & J. K. Sood (1987).

From the definitions we can conclude that,

·         Science is a study of natural phenomena.

·         It is an organised and systematized learning.

·         It is a body of cumulative and ordered observations.

·         It is the knowledge based on observation, experiment and interferences.

·         Science is process as well as the product of that process.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE

            Physical science group includes these branches of science which are related with the study of non-living material. In other words, physical sciences includes mainly two subjects physics and chemistry.

            Physics is the branch of science, which deals with the nature and natural phenomenon. It is the science which explains the natural phenomenon or the behavior of a natural system on the basis of the established laws of nature.

            Physics is the study of the properties of matter and energy and concerns both the macroscopic and microscopic state of the matter.

            Chemistry is the branch of science, which deals with the study of material substances particularly about their composition, properties and reactions that change them into other substances.

            Chemistry is the study of the composition of substances and of their effects upon one another.

-          Dictionary of Science.

Physical science is the combination of both Physics and Chemistry.

SCIENCE

      Science is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observation which results in the formation of concepts and theories with both concept and theories being subject to modification in the light of further empirical observation. Science is the both body of knowledge and the process of acquirement.

-          Fitzpatrick.

NATURE OF SCIENCE

      It is known from the definition of science that the principles of the nature of science can be identified as,

• An accumulated and systematized body of knowledge (Science as a Product)
• A way of knowledge (Science as a Process)
• A method of inquiry, a way of investigation (Scientific Method).
• An attitude towards life, a way of thinking (Scientific Attitude).              

From the definitions and the discussion about the characteristics, the nature of science can be briefly described as below:

v  Science is a particular way of looking at nature

v  Science is a process

v  Science is a product

v  Science is a cumulative knowledge

v  Science is a search for order or regularity

v  Science is a rapidly expanding body of knowledge

v  Science is an interdisciplinary area of learning

v  Science is exact

v  Science is systematized learning

v  Science is based on observation

v  Science develops scientific attitude

v  Science develops scientific method

v  Science inculcates scientific spirit

v  Science predicts probabilities

v  Science promote skepticism

SCOPE OF SCIENCE

Science is a body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon observation. Observation is authoritative and that it is only through the sense of man that observations can be made. Thus, anything outside the limits of man’s senses is outside the limits of science. In order words, science deals with the natural world, the realm of nature and of matter and energy.

            Practice of science is a human activity. Therefore such concepts as beauty and love for knowldge, are very real to scientists, as they are to all human beings, even though strictly scientific interpretations and understandings of such concepts are impossible within the limits of science.

             Today the discipline of science and social sciences are drawing into each other. Behavioral zoologists study the sociology and psychology of animals. Archaeologists derive new insights from the rapid advanced in chemical and physical analysis. Biology draws on chemistry, physics and geology. Science has brought about a change in such important aspects as health, communication transportation etc.

SCIENCE AS A PROCESS - A WAY OF KNOWLEDGE

In science the way of gathering information, thinking, measuring, solving a problem or in other words the ways of learning science are called ‘Process of Science’.

To apply process, certain skills are required and are called as ‘Processing Skills’. They are,

i) Observation

      Observation is not just seeing or looking at or glancing or viewing. During the time we are awake. We see or look at various objects and phenomena around us. The regularity in viewing these phenomena or objects catches our attention and becomes observation. The fore most process skill is observation. It is through observation only we know our environment physical as well as social, from that we learn about their nature, natural phenomena, objects, plants, animals, human beings and behavior.

ii) Classification

On the basis of characteristics which we observed we will try to classify it into particular category. During classification we make group of distinct objects in one group on the basis of similarities which the object share.

Eg: Text books, Reference books, Novels, Story books, Insects, Flowers, Acids.

iii) Communication

For representing a class of objects we need some name, labels, sign or symbol etc. The labels and signs communicate the information about the class, so that it is an important skill in transmitting and testing the knowledge. For recording and communicating the information especially in science we need the skill of measurement.

iv) Measurement

            Measurement is used for recording precise and instruments could be used.

E.g.: To measure rise in temperature, speed.

            Selection of instruments is based upon the degree of precision or exactness required in the measurement.

iv) Estimation

            Sometimes we do not require such accuracy, then we can use estimations.

            Eg : Half a glass of water, one fourth of a piece of paper, bunch of flowers.

            On the basis of these five skills only one can be into the future. While planning any activities skill of prediction is required.

vi) Prediction

            E.g.: When you observe dark clouds in the sky, what do say about the weather? Take umbrella. Why? Because you have predicted the weather.

            Prediction is the skill which helps us to know the behavior of any particular of any particular object or phenomena before it happens. All our planning are depend upon the prediction.

            If we are able to predict various phenomena on the basis of our experiences and observation we can also explain it. For that we should relate various facts properly. This ability of establishing relationship between various facts is “the ability of generalization “.

vii) Inferences

            The abilities of prediction, explanation and generalization together form the process of making inferences. The quality of knowledge acquired by an individual depends upon the quality of basic skills applied. Sharp observations will lead to sound and accurate knowledge. Integration of all skills help an individual to answer why, when and how types of questions. Many skills are required to solve a problem and carry on an experiment.

SCIENCE AS A PRODUCT

            Whatever information or ideas we acquire through various process of science are referred as “Products of Science”. Solution of every problem leads to the discovery of a new problem and the cycle goes on and the result is the accumulation of knowledge. The basic components of knowledge are as follows,

i) Facts

            Facts are specific, verifiable, pieces of information obtained through observations and measurement. These are the grass roots for any theory or law, so the facts are the basics of all knowledge. They are verifiable with reference to time and place.

            Eg : Water is a liquid, solids have shape and volume etc..,

ii) Concepts

            Concepts are abstract ideas that are generalized from facts or specific relevant experience. The concept about different objectives and phenomena are different for different people according to their age and experience. Concepts are single ideas represented by single words.

            E.g.: Acids, birds, metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.

iii) Generalizations (Principles)

            Principles are more complex ideas based on several complex concepts. They are rules on which the activities or behavior of things depend.

            Eg : The metals expands on heating. All metals get expand on heating. All bodies are attracted by Earth.

iv) Theory

            Broadly related principles that provide an explanation for any phenomena are known as theories. These are used to explain, predict and relate various facts and phenomena. George J. Mouley has given the following characteristics of a good theory.

§  Theory is based on facts.

§  Theory should be precise and clear.

§  Theory must be grounded in empirical data.

§  Theory is open to interpretation and verification.      

§  Theory follows the law of Parsimony (that theory is best which explains the most in simple form).

§  Theory has meaningful structure.

§  Theory has applicability.

v) Laws

            Theories confirmed by various scientific experimentations by scientists over a period of time become laws. So law is a factual statement of what always happens. It is same for all the people irrespective of their age experience and holds goods in different situation.

Facts                    Concepts              Generalization                     Theory                 Law

            “A Scientific law may be defined as the factual statement of what always happens in certain circumstances”.                                           - Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

“To learn Science is to do Science, there is no other way of learning science”.

- Dr. D.S. Kothari.

 SCIENCE – A WAY OF INVESTIGATION – A METHOD OF INQUIRY

Efforts to define scientific methods have been a major pre occupation of philosophers in the 20^th century. According to Karl Pearson scientific method involves the following six steps:

                                i.            Identification of the problem

                              ii.            Gathering observations relevant to the problem (or) Collection of data

                            iii.            Statement of hypothesis based on observation gathered (or) Framing hypothesis

                            iv.            Testable predictions of other related observable phenomena are developed from the hypothesis

                              v.            The hypothesis is tested through observations

                            vi.            As a result of empirical observations, the hypothesis is supported, rejected or modified

The scientists do approach the solution of any specific problem in an organized manner with inspiration, imagination and insight. In general the steps of scientific method are as follows:

ü 

* Identifying and defining the problem

Sensing the problem

ü  Understanding the problem                                                   

ü 

* Formulating the hypothesis

Defining the problem

ü  Analysis the problem

ü  Formulation of hypothesis (or) Tentative solutions

ü 

* Testing hypothesis by Collecting & Evaluating Data * Interpreting the results

Collection of relevant information (or) data

ü  Interpreting the data

ü  Evaluation of hypothesis

ü  Drawing conclusion and making generalization

* Drawing conclusions

      of the accepted hypothesis

ü  Application of generalization to new situation

Steps given by

John Dewey

SCIENCE – A WAY OF THINKING – AN ATTITUDE TOWARDS LIFE

Science can also be regarded as an attitude of life. The acquisition of scientific attitude is one of the most important outcomes of science. A person with scientific attitude will have the following characteristics:

Ø  Open mindedness

Ø  Objectivity

Ø  Freedom from belief in superstitions

Ø  Belief in cause-effect relationship

Ø  Accuracy and truthfulness in reporting observations

Ø  Methodical way of solving problems

Ø  Up-to-datedness

Ø  Respect for other people’s opinion, though he/she may not agree with them

Ø  Ability to discern between fact and fiction

Science teachers can, by example, help to develop these characteristics in their students.

VALUES OF TEACHING PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Science education is essential as it is of immense value in the students’’ individual life and his social life. Science education got an important place because it helps in developing scientific temper, scientific outlook and scientific attitude, without these no country can make any scientific advancement. The various values of science are discussed as follows:

Intellectual Value

The greatest value of science is that it has introduced us to new ways of thinking and reasoning. According to American Association of Advancement of Science (AAAS), “We believe that the primary goal of science education should be the intellectual development of individual”. Science as a method of acquiring knowledge will help us to sharpen our intellect and promote intellectual honesty. Its aim is to search the truth. The science education helps to develop the positive attitude like open mindedness, reasoning, confidence, creativity, problem solving capacity etc., and intellectual abilities like sense of meaningful observation, purposeful thinking, concentration, analysis and synthesis. It avoids bias/prejudices and helps the individual to sharpen their intellect. Thus the study of science has given us a real insight of ourselves and the things around us.

Utilitarian Value/Practical Value

We are living in the age of science and technology; it has been entered in our life and daily activities. Right from the cradle to grave all our activities are controlled and fashioned by science. We find a network of scientific gadgets everywhere in our daily life like TV, computers, robots etc. we talk with a person who is far away with the help of telephones, mobiles, internet etc. through the science, the vast store house of natural powers such as wind, water, heat etc., should be converted into useful energy for us. We are in an atomic age says ex-president Truman of America will either be one of compete devastation or one in which new resources of power will lighten the burden of mankind. But it is a sad commentary that the energy of scientists today is being channelized, probably by the politicians to find out the weapons of death. It is for the man to decide whether h will kill himself or build himself with atom bomb. Everything depends upon the mind of man, the devil man or divine man. Thus, science plays an utilitarian role to improve the standards of our life.

Aesthetic Value

            ‘Science is beauty, art and a source of entertainment and a successful means of attaining physical comforts’. Knowledge of science develops a passion for truth and the truth is beauty. Every scientist realizes the aesthetic aspect of his invention and discoveries. Thus science education is essential for developing as aesthetic sense in an individual.

Vocational Value

            There are large numbers of vacations like medicines, engineering, computers, agriculture, biotechnology or any other profession for which the study of science is a primary requirement. Thus it is cleared that, to enter into a vocational course, an individual must have the knowledge of science. ‘The study of science at school forms the basis of many useful hobbies and other productive activities in the latter life of students’. The scientific hobbies motivate to adopt simple cottage industries like manufacturing of soaps, washing powders, face creams, powders, polishes, ink etc.

 Moral Value

Darwin says, “Only the men with high morals exists and they are the believers and followers of science”. In the words of Mangal (1997), ‘Science and its pursuit not only include all the traits of morality but also to develop them. The qualities of honesty of purpose, truth, justice, punctuality, determination, patience, self-control, self-respect, self-confidence and tolerance are automatically developed in man if he follows scientific methods in his/her pursuit of knowledge”. Science itself is a search for truth in a faithful manner. Thus, it develops morality in human being.

Psychological Value

The teaching of psychology is based upon the sound scientific principles and the teaching of science depends on fundamental principles of psychology. Science being an activity oriented subject which helps to satisfy the basic human desires of knowing about wonders of nature and satisfy human instinct like creativeness, self-assertion, curiosity etc.

Cultural Value

Science has played an important role in determining the culture and civilization of a country from time to time. Science has aided the growth of consciousness by making more aware of the universe we live in. Through the practical application of scientific discoveries our civilization is undergoing constant change. The welfare of our civilization is now almost wholly depend upon the scientific progress. A study of the past i.e., the history of scientific development and the discoveries give us an insight into the life, sacrifice, and thrilling adventures of the great scientists and also the cultural heritage of the past.

Science must become an integral part of our culture and spiritual heritage. – Indian Education Commission (1968).

Social Value

Science and society are the two side of one coin. Science gives its new ideas, thoughts, discoveries, and inventions for the progress of the society. It brings the whole world and all people very close. Science has become the boon for the society. Without science, society cannot progress. Science has become the pillars of the society. Science helps in making social life happy, healthy, comfortable and easy.

Adjustment Value

Science helps to develop scientific attitude and scientific method. Such a method prepares an individual to face problems of life and solve such problems systematically and successfully. A person possessing scientific attitude is open-minded and has a desire for accurate knowledge and thus he can able to adjust with all the life situations.

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE

Meaning and Definitions

The word ‘scientific attitude’ includes curiosity towards the surrounding environment, belief in cause effect relationship, patience, truthfulness, impartiality, open-mindedness etc.

Scientific attitude is just a setting of mind and way of life according to certain principles. It is developed when science subjects are taught as discipline of mind. If scientific attitude is developed, the children will live, think and work accordingly.

National Society of the Study of Education [NSSE] defines, “Scientific attitude as open-mindedness, a desire for accurate knowledge, confidence in procedures for seeking knowledge and the expectations that the solution of the problem will come through the use of verified knowledge”.

In the words of Kulshreshtha and Goswami, “Scientific attitude is the combination of many qualities and virtues, which is reflected through the behavior and action of the person. These persons are open-minded, experiment oriented, systematic in approach, possess love for knowledge, intellectually honest, unbiased, truthful and possess scientific temper”.

In general, “scientific attitude may be defined as open-mindedness, intellectual honesty, a belief in cause and effect, appreciate and understand nature, confidence in procedure for seeking knowledge and willingness to change and belief when better evidence is available”.

Characteristics [or] Qualities of Scientific Attitude

Ø  Open-mindedness

Ø  Curiosity

Ø  Judgment based upon scientific facts alone

Ø  Willingness to test and verify conclusions

Ø  Faith in cause and effect relationship

Ø  Honest reporting of observation/experiment

Ø  More faith in standard books by experts of the field and

Ø  Rejection of the principles of unauthority.

How to Develop Scientific Attitude?

The scientific attitude can be developed among the students in the following ways:

ü  Encourage them for wide reading in the scientific literature.

ü  Teacher should suggest project work related to the curriculum.

ü  Provide democratic climate in the class. It infuses the spirit of healthy criticism.

ü  Teach them not to take things granted as they appear, but think, reason out, collect evidence and then only accept things.

ü  Encourage students to perform experiments themselves and to find out the truth.

ü  Provide opportunities for extra reading, laboratory work, improvisation of apparatus, problem solving etc.

ü  Discuss common superstitions, analyze them and reveal truth about them.

ü  Discourage underhand means and shortcuts to complete the experiment work in science. It will enhance the intellectual honesty.

ü  Organize activities like science fairs, exhibitions, science clubs, excursions, projects etc.

ü  Try to satisfy the curiosity of students and let them know the real facts processes and concepts.

ü  Encourage independent experimentation and scientific approach.

ü  Encourage them to discover the facts themselves.

ü  Try to built a scientific environment in the classroom.

ü  Use scientific methods of teaching science to the students properly, employing appropriate teaching devices and techniques at the maxims.

ü  Involve students in science conferences, talks of scientists, building science museums, science practical works etc.

ü  Talk about the lives of prominent scientists in interesting manner and stress on how they could make the discovery or inventions.

ü  Acquaint the students with the significance of science in human life and explain them how man has reached the peak of progress from ancient time to today.

ü  Science teachers should adopt scientific attitude. It will enable the students to imbibe the required scientific attitude among themselves.

Teacher’s role is very important in developing scientific attitude among his/her students. Without them, it is difficult to nurture the spirit of scientific attitude.

SCIENTIFIC TEMPER

The term ‘Scientific Temper’ was coined by our first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru in his book “The discovery of India”. Scientific temper can be defined as a habit of questioning everything and not accepting any claim, any dogma or any assertion without scientific evidence. This is how Nehru describes it in his own words – "It is the scientific approach, the adventurous and yet critical temper of science, the search for truth and new knowledge, the refusal to accept anything without testing and trial, the capacity to change previous conclusions in the face of new evidence, the reliance on observed fact and not on pre-conceived theory, the hard discipline of the mind—all this is necessary, not merely for the application of science but for life itself and the solution of its many problems."

Characteristics of Scientific Temper

Ø  Scientific temper is the application of scientific knowledge to day to day life.

Ø  Scientific temper is not only for the elites. It is true that not everyone is capable of affording higher education and acquire scientific knowledge. But scientific temper can be adopted by anyone disregarding their educational background.

Ø  Article 51A (section h) of the constitution of India declares that “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform”.

Ø  Scientific temper is essential for progress.

Ø  Scientific temper boosts civic sense.

Ø  It concern for the planet.

Ø  Scientific temper is in alignment with art and beauty.

In the words of Hypatia, a well-known mathematician – “Reserve your right to think, for even to think wrongly is better than not to think at all.”

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO TEACHING SCIENCE

The Correlation between Science and Other Subjects

Relation within subjects is called correlation. No subject can be taught in isolation. Teachers must strive for some degree of correlation. Correlation makes the teaching-learning process easier.

Three reasons for correlating science with other subjects are:

ü  Correlation enables the child to comprehend better the meaning and behaviour of what he studies. The more thorough the correlation, the better the ideas that are presented. Without correlation, study is irrational. It becomes a case of rote memory. The proper interrelation of the material of instruction makes it intelligible, more easily memorized and retained, and more significant.

ü  Correlation is held to make study interesting, for it connects the lesson with what the child already knows and is interested in. To find the new, familiar is ever a source of pleasure. To be able to explain, perhaps discover the work of the new lesson, as a result of applying what is already learned, is a source of delight to the pupil.

ü  Correlation makes the application of the knowledge gained in school to practice both within and without that environment far more easy, and so far more likely. This is due to the fact that it cultivates in the child the tendency to apply his knowledge to the comprehension of new ideas and the solution to new problems.

Correlation cultivates the tendency to think and facilitates the recall of resources to sustain the thinking process.

The types of Correlation are:

·         Correlation within the content of a subject;

·         Correlation among the different subjects in the course of study;

·         Correlation between the school work and life outside.

CORRELATION OF SCIENCE SUBJECTS WITH ONE ANOTHER

Astronomy and Physics

            Knowledge of the movement of stars, distance between planets and their revolution around the sun are all connected with physics. The time that light takes in traveling from one star to another and the velocity of light calculated by Roemur is based upon astronomy. Physics and astronomy are deeply related. All telescopic study of stars and moon; the thermometric study of temperature of moon, weather study of moon etc., relate the correlation between the two.

Physics and Chemistry

            These two branches of science are uniquely related to one another. All the metallurgy, electroplating, electrolysis and study of the atmosphere involve both physics and chemistry. Spectrum analysis in physics has established the structure and formulae of so many chemical compounds and has thus placed their correlation on firm footing. Physics and Chemistry are intimately related to each other through the following: Atomic structure, Energy of particles and role of energy in chemical bond formation, Electrical conductivity of solutions, Ionization, Study of atmosphere and Crystallography.

Chemistry and Hygiene

            All sorts of medicines are the result of the chemicals mixed in a fixed proportion. The effect of certain chemicals on bacteria is part of Chemistry. Even the common soap used for hygienic cleanliness is a chemical product.

Geology and Physics

            Location of certain minerals and ores are done with the help of physics. Heat and atmospheric effects on rocks are studied with the help of physics.

Chemistry and Physiology

            The composition of blood, the changes that it undergoes in our bodies due to respiration, the action of enzymes on our food, the nature of excretions are based on knowledge of chemistry. A chemist is a half physiologist. Heredity operates though nucleic acid.

Ø  Genes are chains of amino acids that regulate the growth of different organs. Animal behaviour is controlled by chemicals.

Ø  Chemistry is correlated with medicine. Again industrial chemistry is the commercial preparation of various medicines, hormones and antibiotics.

CORRELATION OF SCIENCE WITH OTHER SCHOOL SUBJECTS

Science is a subject which can be easily correlated with any other subject. This will arouse interest in the pupils who associate the knowledge with the knowledge that he has already gained in the period of other subjects. For the sake of clarification of such correlation, a few brief general suggestions are given below:

Science and Language

Science students are usually weak in their expression. So, it is very essential that the science students should be able to express their thought in clear, concise, correct and attractive language. This is only possible if the science teacher and the language teacher take up a joint responsibility for the cultivation of a good style in answering essay-type questions. The language teacher can ask the students to write an essay on some invention or on the life-history of a scientist. The language teacher can occasionally be invited to criticize the expression of science students and give some constructive suggestions for improving the style of expression. Similarly the historical events and the biographies of scientist provide an excellent material for reading.

Science and Social Studies

Science and social studies are related to each other to a great extent. Science is a dominant factor in determining the beliefs of educated people. It has direct intellectual effect in dispelling many traditional superstitions and beliefs and the introduction of the scientific method there by changing the outlook of people all together. Its effects on the industry resulted in profound change in social organizations which are gradually bringing about corresponding political changes. As a result of its control over environment, a new philosophy is coming up, involving a changed conception of man’s place in the universe.

The history of scientific invention and discoveries provides useful background for the teaching of history. The correlation between science and history is best sought in topics like story of earth, story of man, story of moon etc. A number of important discoveries and inventions were made in the reign of certain kings. Reference should also be made of such scientific achievements while teaching about those things are periods and vice-versa.

Science and Mathematics

Science is probably incomplete without mathematics. It is mathematics that has given a sound footing to the scientific laws. For the real understanding of science the knowledge of mathematics is important. There are many topics which are constantly used in science e.g., decimals, proportion, inverse ratio, equations, graphs etc. Physics is such a subject which cannot proceed even a step without mathematics. It is necessary to have some mathematical background before starting a particular topic in science e.g., the quantitative work in gas laws and calculations of chemical equations should come after proportion has been studied in mathematics, simple idea of statistics is essential before dealing with genetics and other statistical calculations, the knowledge of trigonometrical ratios is very helpful in mechanics and light, and so on. It is, therefore important that the teachers of science and of mathematics work in cooperation to bring about correlation and coordination of the two subjects and to remove any omission or duplication in either of the subjects.

Science and Geography

Geography is so much related to science that it has now been regarded as a branch of science. The study about the soil, climate, distribution of plants and animals etc. brings the two subjects very close to each other. The topics like pressure, temperature, humidity, description and properties of metallic ores and common minerals, the effect of climate and other factors on the plans and animals etc. are common to both science and geography. So, it is essential that the science teacher and the geography teacher should put in cooperative efforts to bring about a close integration of both subjects.

Science and Craft

The correlation between science and craft is possible to greater extent. Agriculture, as a craft, is nothing but applied science and its relation with science need not be emphasized. Other crafts like wood work, metal work, cardboard modeling, clay work etc., can be successfully made use of in the improvisation and construction of science apparatus. The knowledge of science is important so far as the chemistry and microscopic structure of the materials used in different crafts are concerned. So, crafts correctly organized and properly correlated with science, can help in producing just those qualities of thought, application and skill which are required of the future workers in the field of science, technology and agriculture.

Science and Fine Arts

The knowledge of different notes, typical vibrating system in strings and air columns, musical scales etc., are essential for the learning of music and on the other hand, gramophones, tape recorders, films etc. which involve music, can make science lesson interesting and real by appealing to the emotions. Drawing is of immense importance in the study of all the branches of science especially biology. The preparation of charts and pictures requires some skill in painting. It is very importance that the students of science should be given training in drawing and painting.

Science and the Social and Physical Environments

We are living in an age of science and all our activities are controlled and governed by science. Everything around us directly and in directly concerns science. It has changed the whole pattern of society and has affected the social as well as the physical environments. The understanding of these changed and complex environments, for a successful living, is possible only through the knowledge of science. It is, therefore, obligatory on the part of the science teacher that he should relate the classroom teaching with the social and physical environments by quoting examples from the daily life of the child. He should take the students to a factory or on excursion while dealing with the topic concerning these. The teaching of science will be losing its purpose if it does not take in to account the experiences of children in daily life.